Environmental Engineering Reference
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manner. The results are the same as those for linear time-invariant
circuits.
3.5
Operational Amplifiers
Operational amplifiers are usually modeled using macro models [5,
80] to minimize the simulation cost and yet to preserve the essential
characteristics of these devices. For linear operational amplifiers, these
macro models are essentially linear time-invariant circuits consisting of
resistors, capacitors, and controlled sources that quantify the essential
characteristics of operational amplifiers, such as bandwidth and output
impedance. The adjoint network of operational amplifiers can therefore
be constructed on an element-by-element basis. Fig.10.2 shows a single-
pole macro model linear operational amplifiers and its adjoint network.
The pole is determined by
R
and
C.
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