Information Technology Reference
In-Depth Information
Cognitive psychologists explain that human learning involves
the use of memory, motivation, thinking, and reflection. Craik and
Lockhart [19] and Ausubel [4] also provided further explanation for
learning as an internal process, and the learning outcome is affected
by the following factors: (1) the amount learned depending on the
processing capacity of the individual learner, (2) the amount of effort
in the learning process, (3) the depth of the processing, and (4) the
learner's existing knowledge structure.
To take into account the above factors, Anderson and Elloumi [2]
suggested some guidelines for learning material design. First, the
materials must be designed at difficulty levels that match the cog-
nitive level of different learners, so that the individual learner can
attend to and relate to the material for his or her learning. Second,
it is proposed that prerequisite test questions be used to recall the
prerequisite knowledge structure required for learning the new
materials. With the flexibility of e-learning, students with diverse
backgrounds and knowledge should be provided with the most
appropriate path to review prerequisite learning before any new
information is presented. Third, information should be presented in
different modes (e.g., textual and visual) to accommodate individual
differences in processing information and to facilitate putting the
information into memory. According to the dual-coding theory [43],
information received in different modes is better than in a single
mode (textual only).
•
Constructivism
Constructivists believe learners are active rather than passive.
They also feel that knowledge is not received from the outside or
from someone else. Moreover, learning is a constructive process
where learners build an internal illustration of knowledge and
a personal interpretation of experience. Indeed, the position of
the learner is the center of the learning and an instructor plays
an advising and facilitating role. Students learn best when they
actively construct their own understanding. They are encouraged
to invent their own solutions and to try out ideas and hypotheses.
As a result, learning is moving away from one-way instruction
(teacher-centered) to construction and discovery of knowledge
(student-centered) [22, 52].
Jonassen [30], and Anderson and Elloumi [2] summarize the
implications of constructivism for instructional design. The fol-
lowing principles illustrate how knowledge construction can be
facilitated. First, learning should be designed as an active process.
To facilitate the creation of personalized meaning, learners should
be actively doing meaningful activities. For example, an active
