Information Technology Reference
In-Depth Information
known as metadata, must be standardized to facilitate interoperability
with other users. Samples are Dublin Core [55], Instructional Management
Systems (IMS) project (www.imsproject.org), and Shared Content Object
Reference Model (SCORM), created by Advanced Distributed Learning
(www.adlnet.gov). The IMS project builds upon the Dublin Core to create
the IMS metadata standard, while SCORM provides a single standard for
educational content developers. To take advantage of the standards, ITS
can focus more on student modeling. Meanwhile, the learning materials
sequencing, which has been provided by ITS traditionally, is delegated to
the standards.
The ITS system is also used to assess students' performance. Recent
debates about what kinds of assessment data tutoring systems should
be emphasized. The emphasis of one approach over the other reflects the
designers' cognitive and pedagogical assumptions. Summative assess-
ment and formative assessment are two major kinds of assessment meth-
ods being generally used. Summative assessments are used to formally
assess whether students have achieved the learning targets; where for-
mative assessments are used to help improve students' achievement of
learning targets. There is a debate in the computerization of formative
assessment in intelligent tutoring systems. It is argued that feedback must
be given at an appropriate point in the learning process. According to
Buchanan [15], to be useful in providing immediate feedback, computer-
ized formative assessment must be gathered in an efficient and quantifi-
able manner.
In recent years, there have been various kinds of cognitive and peda-
gogical approaches to ITS design. These approaches not only address the
issue of students versus tutor control, but also state the application of cog-
nitive theories of learning and the role of assessment in intelligent tutor-
ing systems. The Conceptual Helper, as part of the Andes project at the
University of Pittsburgh, was designed to improve the instruction of phys-
ics [26]. By following the model-tracing paradigm, the tutor tried to model
the thinking process of the student in the Conceptual Helper. However,
the Conceptual Helper was not well adapted to use for other subjects. In
another research, Aleven and Koedinger [1] found that students often lack
the meta-cognitive awareness to seek help when required and thus, they
suggest forcing students to use help even when they do not solicit it. Other
researchers emphasized the importance of student control in the use of
ITS [53,54].
17.2.2 adaptive Hypermedia (aH)
In view of the rapid development of the Internet and World Wide Web,
researchers attempted to deploy ITS on the Web. Most generic ITS archi-
tecture features are still retained in these systems [37]. Among these
