The Assessment of Adaptive Capacity - Climate Change and Water Governance: Adaptive Capacity in Chile and Switzerland - page 57

touched upon through criteria relating to information flow through social networks as
well as the combination of various sources of information and knowledge. These
criteria are also relevant for the creation of the appropriate level of public perception
(Yohe and Tol 2002 ) for adaptation through sense making and collaborative learning
(Olsson et al. 2006 ) . Engle and Lemos ( 2010 ) also comment that levels of financial
and human capital are critical for overall success of an organisation or governance
structure. Yet, while more resources (financial and human) may increase the capacity
of the system, it is how these resources are applied and organised that may be more
important. Less could mean more. Therefore it is not just the presence of adequate
resources, but perhaps the deployment of a suitable mix of financial and human
resources across different scales that may be of relevance, emphasising the linkages
with experience, networks, accountability, transparency and decentralisation.

4.3.4 Networks & Connectivity

Folke et al. ( 2005 ) explore the social elements of adaptive governance, which can
enable adaptive ecosystem based management in the context of abrupt change.
'Connectivity across Networks' refers to connectivity across individuals, organisations,
agencies and institutions through bridging organisations. Networks capture the various
institutional levels and relationships involved with river basin management. Folke
et al. ( 2005 ) also suggest that adaptive co-management requires more flexible social
networks, which may be more innovative and responsive than bureaucracies in times
of rapid change. Additionally, bridging and boundary organisations and networks
(e.g. management councils, communities of practice, learning networks, associations,
cross-sectoral partnerships, political coalitions and social movements) are seen as
important central nodes of cross-scale interactions (Kofinas 2009 ) . Challenges
are, however, recognised in fostering adaptive learning between such bridging
organisations and larger society as a whole (Kofinas 2009 ). It is assumed that the
greater the networking and connectivity between groups and stakeholders involved
in the management processes, the greater the adaptive capacity (Engle and Lemos
2010 ). While networks enable individuals to engage in the wider decision making
environment, gain access to information and resources (technical or financial), the
usefulness of such networks are determined by both social and institutional factors
(Tompkins and Adger 2004 ). Hence, just as in the critique of participation, connec-
tivity and networks alone may not imply a willingness to cooperate, which is requisite
for systems to be adaptive (UNECE 2009 ) .

4.3.5 Predictability - Flexibility

Flexibility is to be taken as the antithesis of irreversibility. This indicator is repeated
across a number of the studies on adaptive capacity. The UNECE comments that
'the capacity to adapt requires flexibility. As a result, measures that are highly