Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
wildlife and forestry resources (Neumann, 1996; Schrijver, 1997). Areas of
land were set aside for colonial and royal hunting and local uses were pro-
hibited. In other cases, areas of mountain forests were reserved to ensure a
water supply for people over a broader area (see Rodgers, 1993).
In the later part of the twentieth century the preservationist models
came under signii cant criticism from social scientists working primarily
with human development issues (Anderson and Grove, 1987; IIED, 1994;
Pimbert and Pretty, 1995; Alpert, 1996; Chambers, 1997). In an attempt to
create a more socially equitable model for conservation in poor develop-
ing countries, conservation agencies borrowed ideas from development
practitioners and created a single integrated model for conservation and
development - the ICDP. The model proved extremely popular, not least
amongst the development assistance agencies from developed countries,
which were charged with assisting developing countries to solve their human
development and environmental problems. This popularity provided signif-
icant new funding opportunities, and the ICDP model was rapidly adopted
by many of the larger conservation NGOs working in developing countries.
The i rst operational projects were established in the middle 1980s (Hannah,
1992; Stocking and Perkin, 1992; Sanjayan et al., 1997; Larsen et al., 1998;
MacKinnon, 2001; Jeanrenaud, 2002a, b; Franks and Blomley, 2004; Wells
and McShane, 2004). Since that time, hundreds of ICDPs have operated
across the world, especially in Africa where people live side by side with
biological resources (Brandon and Wells, 1992; Brown and Wyckof -Baird,
1993; Barrett and Arcese, 1995; Fisher, 1995; Caldecott, 1998; Margolius
and Salafsky, 1998; Wainwright and Wehrmeyer, 1998; Newmark and
Hough, 2000; Adams and Hulme, 2001; Hughes and Flintan, 2001).
The ICDP dif ers from protectionist approaches to conservation in
that the local people surrounding the areas of high natural resource value
also form a focus for project attention (Franks, 2001). In the protected
area management systems of the past, people were often excluded by
force and regarded as 'poachers' who should be punished or even shot if
they ventured into the protected area without government permit. If they
suf ered costs from living close to the protected area these were ignored
and it was often suggested that they should move elsewhere. This caused
much antagonism between protected area staf and local residents. Most
protected area management agencies have softened their stance in recent
years and many agencies share some of their revenues, assist with local
development projects, or allow local populations to take some resources
from the reserve. Such changes have improved relations between protected
areas and people in many places, and such changes bring the park closer
to the ICDP model.
The ICDP dif ers from community-based natural resource management
