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Therefore, future research should consider using
actual near-transfer and far-transfer computing
tasks and examine other technologies to enhance
the validity of the results and increase their gen-
eralizability across technologies. Finally, learning
performance was measured in a short period of
time after training. Gist and Mitchell (1992) main-
tain that in the time span between assessments of
self-efficacy and performance, many factors can
influence actual performance. Thus, measuring
learning performance in an extended period of
time such as one or two months after training is
needed to evaluate the long-term effects of CSE
on learning performance.
From a research perspective, this study extend-
ed prior research on CSE and computer training
and showed that CSE had general and application
components. The study also demonstrated how the
two components of CSE affect computer training
outcomes. With respect to computer training, this
study took a broader approach to evaluating the
effectiveness of such training. More specifically,
two key training outcomes (reactions and learning
performance) from Kirkpatrick's (1959) model of
training effectiveness were used to evaluate ef-
fectiveness of computer training. Based on past
studies, reactions were examined with respect
to perceived ease of use and computer anxiety.
In addition, two types of learning (near-transfer
and far-transfer) were considered as indicators of
learning performance. Thus, this study represents
an important attempt to enhance understand-
ing of the impact of CSE on computer training
outcomes.
Regarding practical and managerial implica-
tions, the results of this study could be useful in
designing and administering computer training
programs. For example, if near-transfer learn-
ing is the primary objective of training, then it
may be more helpful to focus on enhancing on
application CSE prior to training. Conversely, if
far-transfer learning is the main objective, then it
may be more useful to focus on enhancing both
levels of CSE prior to training. Prior studies have
shown that increased experience with computers,
implementing more user-friendly interfaces, and
the availability of organizational support are help-
ful in improving users' computer efficacy beliefs
(Igbaria & Iivari, 1995). Recent studies indicate
that training framing (i.e., verbal persuasion or
encouragement from managers and supervisors)
is useful in enhancing trainees' CSE beliefs.
With respect computer anxiety, the results
showed that both levels of CSE (general and ap-
plication-specific) had inverse impact on computer
anxiety. Since computer anxiety is a treatable state
anxiety (Chua et al., 1999; Dyck, Gee, & Smither,
1998), organizational interventions designed to
alleviate computer anxiety should focus on en-
hancing general and application CSE. Increasing
organizational support (Igbaria & Iivari, 1995),
increasing computer experience (Hackbarth,
Grover, & Yi, 2003), and increasing awareness
of user-friendly and easy-to-use applications that
require little or no knowledge of mathematics or
computer programming (Igbaria & Parasuraman,
1989) have also been found to be effective in
reducing computer anxiety.
This study may have implications for teaching
computer-related courses. Havelka, Beasley, and
Broome (2004) indicate that attempts to reduce
computer anxiety should improve students' expe-
riences and enhance their attitudes towards their
education. Given that general and application CSE
play a significant role in reducing computer anxi-
ety, approaches to increase students' CSE such as
social encouragement or verbal persuasion from
instructors may have positive effects on students'
educational experiences and learning.
Finally, this study provides some implications
for enhancing IS acceptance. For instance, per-
ceived ease of use represents a key determinant
of IS acceptance (Davis, 1989) and reviews of
empirical studies found a positive relationship
between ease of use and IS acceptance behavior
(Mahmood, Hall, & Swanberg, 2001). Since
general CSE was found to have a significant ef-
fect on perceived ease of use, enhancing users'
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