Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
Table 11.1. Key specifications for aviation fuels.
Property
Jet A-1
Jet A
Jet B
JP-4
JP-5
JP-8
Density at
15
◦
C [kg/m
3
]
775-840
775-840
750-801
751-802
788-845
775-840
Viscosity at
−
20
◦
C [mm
2
/s]
≤
8
≤
8.0
-
-
≤
8.5
≤
8.0
Flash point [
◦
C]
≥
38
≥
38
-
-
≥
60
≥
38
Freeze
temperature [
◦
C]
≤−
47
≤−
40
≤−
51
≤−
58
≤−
46
≤−
47
Distillation end
point [
◦
C]
≤
300
≤
300
-
≤
270
≤
300
≤
300
Vapor pressure
[kPa]
-
-
<
21
14-21 at
37.8
◦
C
-
-
Specific energy
[MJ/kg]
≥
42.8
≥
42.8
≥
42.8
≥
42.8
≥
42.6
≥
42.8
Lubricity: wear
scar diameter
[mm]
<
0.85
-
-
-
-
-
total acidity
[mg KOH/g]
≤
0.015
≤
0.010
≤
0.010
≤
0.015
≤
0.015
≤
0.015
aromatics [%v/v]
≤
25
≤
25
≤
25
≤
25.0
≤
25.0
≤
25.0
sulfur [%m/m]
≤
0.30
≤
0.30
≤
0.40
≤
0.4
≤
0.30
≤
0.30
hydrogen [%m/m]
-
-
-
≤
13.5
≤
13.4
≤
13.4
Specification
UK DEF
STAN 91-91
ASTM D
1655
Canada
CGSB-3-22
US MIL-
DTL-5624U
US MIL-
DTL-5624U
US MIL-
DTL-83133E
or UK DEF
STAN 91-87
and organizations provide somewhat different sets of specifications for jet fuels, but some of the
most broadly based provisions are given in Table 11.1.
In the governing standards identified in the bottom row of Table 11.1, there are many other
specifications given that are not shown. Some of themset minimumormaximumvalues for various
parameters; others simply require reporting. For example, the standards for Jet A-1 defined in UK
DEF STAN 91-91 require that fuel manufacturers report the percentage of fuel by volume (%v/v)
that has been hydrotreated. This has implications for synthetic fuels, since hydrotreatment is the
method of choice used to process biologically derived oils (or “green crude”) into aviation-grade
fuel (see section 11.5). Each specification is associated with one or more standard measurement
protocols, since the method of measurement can have an impact on the detected value. For a more
detailed outline of specifications for other fuel types and the standards of other countries, see
ExxonMobil (2005). For an excellent review of aviation fuel and testing methods, see Chevron
(2006).
Between 1993 and 2011, kerosene-type jet fuel comprised 9-11%of the crude oil content in US
refineries (EIA, 2011). The presence of aromatics, sulfur and other trace components are highly
correlated to the geographical source of the extracted crude. In Figures 11.2 and 11.3, represen-
tative properties are shown, as identified from 56 samples of aviation fuel obtained from around
the globe in the World Fuel Sampling Program (WFSP) (Hadaller and Johnson, 2006). Not all of
these samples were known to have been used as jet fuel, and one sample failed its thermal stabil-
ity testing. Furthermore, some of the compiled regional results (Fig. 11.2a) or fuel type results
(Fig. 11.2b) were predicated on one or two samples and should not be considered statistically
significant. The samples from South Africa were either partially or completely comprised of
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