Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
mats and liquid traps. These methods aim to minimize the personal exposure and to reduce the
airborne resuspension and transport of nanomaterials outside the spill area. A typical nanomaterial
spill kit includes the following items (NIOSH, 2012): (1) barricade tape, (2) nitrile or other chemi-
cally impervious gloves, (3) elastomeric respirator with appropriate filters, (4) absorbent materials,
(5) wipes, (6) sealable plastic bags, (7) walk-off mats, (8) HEPA-equipped vacuums, and (9) a spray
bottle with deionized water or other appropriate liquid. Any waste resulting from the cleanup should
be managed and disposed in accordance with the laboratory's hazardous waste procedures.
Similarly, as only a little is known about the environmental risks, it would be prudent to utilize
all available knowledge and resources (e.g., IH professionals and applicable regulations) to manage
and dispose wastes containing nanomaterials in a safe and environmentally friendly manner. Until
new information is available, it is appropriate to consider nanomaterials, and any other materials or
objects that come into contact with them, as hazardous wastes. In Switzerland, nanomaterials are
considered as hazardous substances, owing to their explosive and pyrogenic properties (Steinkrauss
et al., 2010). In the United States, EPA regulations place the burden of determining a waste hazard-
ous or not, and in what hazard classification, on the waste generator. This responsibility, in practice,
has commonly been carried out by IH professionals or their waste disposal firms. Nevertheless, there
are some guidelines provided by the Department of Energy (DOE), British Standards Institution,
and NRC, given as follows. In the process of a hazard evaluation, it should be noted that nanomateri-
als often have different reactivities than bulk materials, and, thus, one shall not rely solely upon the
bulk material properties for nanomaterial properties. For liquid wastes, the hazards from both the
liquid and the nanomaterials should be considered. The DOE recommends collecting nanomaterial
wastes in a sealable plastic bag or container under appropriate ventilation controls. When it is full,
double-bag the waste and label it with “contains nanomaterials” and any other particular hazard
notes. In addition, notify the hazardous waste handlers that nanomaterials are in the wastes.
A comprehensive list of PPE and materials for use in work and cleanup with information on
brand/supplier names, specifications, and costs has been researched and compiled by Adeleye et al.
(2011). It is therefore possible to evaluate the economic implications of implementing specific sets
of control measures described earlier.
2.5.6 o
ccupatIoNal
h
ealth
s
urveIllaNce
Occupational health surveillance involves the ongoing systematic collection, analysis, and dissemi-
nation of exposure and health data on groups of workers for the purpose of preventing illnesses and
injury (Halperin, 1996). It broadly includes both hazardous and medical surveillance. As an integral
part of an effective safety and health program, the NIOSH has continually recommended implement-
ing occupational health surveillance when workers are exposed to potentially hazardous materials.
Hazard surveillance involves identifying potentially hazardous workplace practices or exposures,
and assessing the extent to which they can be linked to workers, the effectiveness of controls, and
the reliability of exposure measures (NIOSH, 2009b). At present, in the absence of adequate health
information, hazard surveillance with a preventive focus is particularly relevant to the production and
handling of nanomaterials in order to establish prudent measures for controlling its exposure.
Medical surveillance, on the other hand, involves monitoring actual health events or testing
changes in a biologic function of “exposed” workers. One of its major purposes is to detect early
signs of work-related illness and disease before medical treatment, also known as medical screen-
ing. As a result, medical surveillance should be considered as a second line of defense, behind
engineering and administrative controls and the use of PPE. Other benefits from medical surveil-
lance include providing baseline information with regard to work accommodation, acclimatization,
and potential adverse health effects, which were not known earlier because of limited knowledge.
OSHA has a number of standards that include the requirements for medical surveillance (OSHA,
2009b), while the NIOSH also has recommended the medical surveillance of workers exposed to
certain occupational hazards (NIOSH, 2009b). It is noted that none of the above standards and
