Prospects for the Commercialization of Transgenic Ornamentals - Transgenic Horticultural Crops: Challenges and Opportunities - page 307

Others.have.long.since.gone.out.of.business.or.have.been.absorbed.into.larger.corpora-
tions.or.have.curtailed.or.terminated.their.in-house.programs..The.main.reason.were.
cost. of. patents. and. increased. regulatory. oversight. 12 . Although. there. are. signiicant.
costs.in.the.development.and.introduction.of.conventionally.bred.ornamentals,.these.
do.not.carry.with.them.the.same.administrative.and.legalistic.burden.associated.with.
the.testing.and.government.approval.of.transgenic.ornamental.crops..These.issues.are.
described.in.more.detail.in.the.following.paragraphs..Despite.the.decrease.in.corpo-
rate.expenditures,.university.and.government.funds.are.still.used.at.a.signiicant.level.
for.research.centered.around.the.development.of.genetically.engineered.ornamentals..
This.includes.research.on.fragrance,.lower.form,.and.lower.color. 13,14
PATENTS, PLANTS, AND COSTS
For.genetic.engineering,.like.any.new.and.innovative.technology,.its.success.and.per-
sistence. in. the. marketplace. centers. around. the. patent. protection. of. new. inventions.
and.discoveries..The.ornamental.industry.is.no.stranger.to.the.legal.protection.of.new.
inventions..Since.1930,.new.varieties.of.trees,.shrubs,.and.herbaceous.plants.generated.
as.spontaneous.or.induced.mutations,.or.by.cross-hybridization.have.been.protected.by.
Plant.Patents. 15 .The.Plant.Patent.Act.provides.patent.protection.for.such.clonally.prop-
agated.varieties..This.includes.varieties.propagated.by.grafting.of.scions.onto.root-
stock,.the.direct.rooting.of.cuttings,.or.the.division.of.plants.or.bulbs..For.recalcitrant.
varieties.that.are.dificult.or.slow.to.propagate,.this.can.also.be..performed.by.tissue.
culture.micropropagation..Others.can.breed.with.these.varieties.but.cannot.propagate.
them.without.a.license.from.the.patent.owner..For.the.past.90.years,.this.method.of.
protection.has.provided.a.simple,.affordable,.and.enforceable.means.of.protecting.the.
inventive.endeavors.of.hobby.breeders,.university.researchers,.and.corporations.alike..
Ornamental.varieties.that.are.produced.and/or.propagated.by.seed.can.potentially.be.
protected.under.the.Plant.Variety.Protection.(PVP).Act. 16 .In.practice,.however,.novel.
ornamental.F1.hybrids.are.not.protected.by.their.inventors..Instead.the.F1.parents.are.
held.by.the.inventors.as.a.trade.secret..Since.a.novel.F1.variety.will.not.breed.true,.the.
breeder.has.little.to.fear.from.a.competitor.or.consumer.who.attempts.to.produce.the.
new.variety.through.seed..Most.of.the.varieties.protected.as.PVPs.are.pure.breeding.
open.pollinated.varieties.of.grasses.and.vegetables.(http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/
npgs/html/pvplist.pl)..The.developer.of.F1.hybrid.seed.avoids.the.cost.of.patent.pro-
tection,.but.in.turn.invests.more.in.the.development.of.the.genetics.required.to.develop.
true.breeding.parent.lines.needed.for.large.scale.F1.seed.production..Production.of.
hybrid.seed.is.also.more.technically.demanding.and.less.predictable.than.asexually.
propagated.varieties..In.general,.the.ornamental.industry.has.shifted.away.from.F1.
hybrid.seed.production.and.more.and.more.towards.vegetative.propagation.
Outside. of. the. United. States,. new. plant. varieties. can. be. protected. under. the.
International.Convention.for.the.Protection.of.New.Varieties.of.Plants.(UPOV).in.
any.country.that.is.a.signatory.of.the.1991.convention. 17 .There.are.currently.67.mem-
ber. states,. including. countries. in. Europe,. Asia,. Africa,. and. the. Americas.. UPOV.
provides.a.codiied.system,.whereby.a.developer.can.seek.protection.in.parallel.in.
multiple.member.states..This.greatly.simpliies.the.protection.for.a.developer.seek-
ing.to.produce,.distribute,.and.market.new.varieties.in.multiple.member.states.