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of Russification of non-Russian nationalities,
often by restricting the use of national lan-
guages. Deeply anti-Semitic, he approved special
restrictions on Jews, whom he identified as dis-
loyal and linked to the revolutionary movement.
A wave of POGROM s took place in 1881, resulting
in significant Jewish emigration that would
increase through the next two decades.
With the goal of strengthening Russia, his gov-
ernment promoted significant industrialization
that brought mixed results: economic develop-
ment and the growth of an industrial working
class that in time became influenced by the
socialist message of revolution. His finance min-
isters, the most notable of whom was Sergei
WITTE , followed protectionist policies that favored
the development of heavy industry and the con-
struction of railways. Among the latter, a major
achievement was the construction of the TRANS -
SIBERIAN RAILROAD , begun in 1891 and completed
in 1903, which opened up vast areas of Siberia to
peasant colonization and facilitated the move-
ment of Russian troops to the Pacific Ocean. He
unabashedly promoted the interests of the gen-
try through the creation of the State Gentry Bank
in 1885, as well as by creating the office of Land
Captains in rural districts to control the activities
of the ZEMSTVOS his father had created and that
Alexander III suspected of liberal sympathies.
In foreign policy, he continued his father's
policy of nonintervention in European affairs,
but toward the end of his reign there was an
important shift in Russia's alliances. Stung by
Wilhelm II's refusal to renew the Reinsurance
Treaty between Germany and Russia, Alexan-
der's government pursued a rapprochement
with France, despite the czar's distaste for its
republican regime, which resulted in the Franco-
Russian alliance of 1894.
The FAMINE of 1891-92 damaged the govern-
ment's image significantly, as it was blamed for
squeezing the peasantry for revenue and then
for failing to respond with assistance once the
famine started. The 1890s witnessed a gradual
renewal of revolutionary opposition, but it was
the czar's son Nicholas who would have to deal
with its consequences, as Alexander died sud-
denly of a stroke in November 1894.
Alexander Nevsky (1219?-1263)
grand prince
Alexander Nevsky was born in 1219, the second
son of Yaroslav, grand prince of Vladimir. He
became prince of NOVGOROD in 1236. As prince of
Novgorod, in 1240 he vanquished the Swedes on
the river Neva (the source of his name “Nevsky,”
which was not used in his lifetime), and he
defeated the Teutonic Knights in 1242 at the
famous battle on the frozen ice of Lake Chud
(Peipus). He successfully defended Russia against
the Lithuanians and was confirmed as grand
prince in 1252 by the khan of the GOLDEN HORDE .
Subsequent glorification as a Russian hero has
entangled fact and legend in our knowledge and
assessment of his career. The defeat of the Teu-
tonic Knights soon came to be seen as a triumph
of Orthodoxy over Catholic aggression inspired
by the pope. Early in the reign of Ivan the Terri-
ble, the Orthodox Church canonized Alexander.
Peter the Great paid tribute to the warrior-saint
by ordering the construction of the Alexander
Nevsky Lavra monastery on the supposed site of
this victory over the Swedes in 1240. Peter also
instituted a military decoration in his name,
which was abolished in 1917 but revived by
STALIN in 1942. The empress ELIZABETH encour-
aged the cult of Alexander by commissioning a
massive silver shrine for the relics of the saint,
which was made in the St. Petersburg Mint,
between 1750 and 1753. Perhaps best known to
contemporary audiences is the film Alexander
Nevsky by Sergei EISENTSEIN , with a powerful
musical score by Sergei PROKOFIEV . Released in
1941, it reinforced Alexander's heroic image and
his role as the symbol of Russian resistance to the
German invasion. Recently some historians have
questioned the degree to which Russian princi-
palities were threatened from the west, the real
number of German casualties at Lake Chud, and
whether the victory was an important turning
point. Likewise, Alexander's decision to cooper-
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