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ish troops sitting in the Kremlin and the possi-
bility of a Polish king on the throne, Patriarch
Hermogen helped transform the situation into a
campaign of national resistance. After a First
National Army fell apart, a Second National
Army, led by the Nizhnii Novgorod merchant
Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitrii Pozharsky (see
MININ
and
POZHARSKY
), marched on Moscow and
captured the Kremlin in 1612. A few months
later, in January 1613, a meeting of the
ZEMSKII
SOBOR
(Assembly of the Land) elected as czar the
16-year-old Michael
ROMANOV
(r. 1613-45),
grand nephew of Ivan the Terrible's first wife, the
first of the Romanov dynasty that would rule
Russia for the next three centuries.
Titov saw himself as more urbane and better
educated than Gagarin, the latter's more engag-
ing personality and peasant background tilted
the decision in his favor, especially in the eyes of
Nikita
KHRUSHCHEV
, a key backer of the space
program and himself a man of rural background.
The August 1961 flight was Titov's first and last.
He spent the rest of the decade in the Soviet air
force, then returned to the space program as a
senior official in the design department, where
he helped draft a clone of the American space
shuttle. He retired as a staff officer in the Defense
Ministry. In 1995 Titov ran successfully for the
Russian
DUMA
(parliament) on the Communist
ticket. He wrote several books about space travel,
including
The 17 Space Dawns
and
My Blue Planet.
He died on September 10, 2000, in Moscow.
Titov, German Stepanovich
(1935-2000)
cosmonaut
With his groundbreaking flight of August 4,
1961, Titov became the second Russian—after
Yuri
GAGARIN
—to fly in space as well as the first
one to sleep there. On August 4, 1961, Titov, a
major at the time, stunned the world by riding
his
Vostok-2
capsule for 17 orbits and an amazing
25 hours and 11 minutes. His impressive flight
added more fuel to the space race of the 1960s
and compelled the U.S. National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) to stop a
more cautious schedule of test flights and, more
than six months later, send Lt. Col. John H.
Glenn on a three-orbit flight around the earth.
Titov's flight was also notable because he became
the first human to sleep in a weightless atmo-
sphere and the first to experience space sickness,
the nausea that afflicts many astronauts. He later
admitted that he almost decided to scrap the
flight after a few orbits. Titov was born in Altai,
in far south-central Russia, into a teacher's fam-
ily. He graduated from military pilot's school in
1957 and was sent to a fighter pilot school in
Leningrad (St. Petersburg). He was quickly
drafted in 1959 into the top-secret space flight
program. Titov competed with Gagarin for the
pilot's seat on the first manned flight. Although
Tkachev, Petr Nikitich
(1844-1886)
revolutionary
A representative of the “Jacobin” tradition of
conspiratorial revolutionary leadership often
portrayed as a precursor of
LENIN
, Tkachev was
born in Pskov province to an impoverished gen-
try family. He enrolled in St. Petersburg Univer-
sity in 1861, but was jailed soon after for his part
in a student protest. He made his name in the
1860s as a revolutionary journalist, but was
arrested again in 1869. In 1871, 16 months were
added to his sentence for his association with the
notorious revolutionary Sergei
NECHAEV
.
Tkachev left Russia for Geneva in December
1873 for a short-lived collaboration with Petr
LAVROV
on his journal
Vpered!
(
Forward!
). Frus-
trated by Lavrov's moderate tactics, he founded
his own journal,
Nabat
(
Tocsin
), in 1875. Over
the following years, Tkachev developed an eclec-
tic set of ideas that drew from the main revolu-
tionary currents of the day. A populist at heart,
he went against the mainstream populist belief
in the revolutionary capabilities of the Russian
peasantry, arguing instead that peasants alone
could not carry out a successful revolution. He
agreed with Mikhail
BAKUNIN
's call for an imme-
diate uprising, but he believed in the need for an
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