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temperature without heavy frost (Hosie et al. 1986; Whitwell et al. 1988;
Finno et al. 2006; Votion et al. 2007; van Galen et al. 2010). Development of
new cases during an outbreak ceases after 4-5 days of heavy frost and/or snow
(Votion et al. 2007; van Galen et al. 2010), which suggests that extreme cold
may destroy the causative agent. Nevertheless, the occurrence of AM remains
unpredictable and one should not solely rely on weather forecasts to decide
whether horses should be submitted to preventive measures for AM.
2.3.4. Demographic Data
Even though that some horses are more at risk than others as discussed in
previous chapter, all equids (all horse breeds, as well as donkeys and zebras,
both sexes, all ages, and thin, normal and obese horses (van Galen et al. 2010))
can be affected by AM so preventive measures should ideally be applied to all
equids.
2.3.5. Horse Management
Since AM affects severely the horse's energy metabolism, it can be
suggested to fraction feedings and to supply a high carbohydrate diet
(concentrates, good quality of fibres) in order to support optimally the energy
and nutrient supply. Limiting pasturing has been defined as a protective factor,
but above this AM has not been described in horses spending less than 6 hours
at pasture (van Galen et al. 2010). This demonstrates that contact time with the
causative agent is of major importance to develop the disease and that limiting
pasturing is indeed of interest.
2.3.6. Pastures
Often AM declares on natural and untreated pastures (Votion et al. 2009).
A general aspecific treatment of pastures can therefore be suggested.
Ploughing, sowing, mowing and fertilizing for example influence the soil and
plant cover and might interfere with the causative agent and/or predisposing
factors.
Although the presence of trees was a risk factor for the development of
AM, tree species have not been evaluated by statistical risk analysis.
Nevertheless, one tree in particular has been mentioned repeatedly in relation
to AM: Acer pseudoplatanus (maple tree) (Votion et al. 2007; van der Kolk,
Wijnberg et al. 2010; van Galen et al. 2010). It is unknown for the time being
if this common European tree plays a direct role in the pathogenesis of AM. It
is however often infected by tar spot and its presence results unavoidably to
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