Travel Reference
In-Depth Information
In particular, since the 18th century two dis-
courses of national identity have emerged
within Romania (Verdery, 1991). One empha-
sizes historical and cultural ties with 'Europe'
and seeks to assert that Romania is part of the
European mainstream; the other stresses indig-
enous and autochthonous values and is more
hostile to European influences. Each represen-
tation of national identity has enjoyed different
periods
external (i.e. Western) influences and which
instead championed indigenous and distinctly
Romanian national values.
The 1989 revolution did not bring about a
dramatic change in Romania's relations with
Europe. Instead, the ruling élite that came to
power in December 1989 recognized that an
appeal to national sentiment was one way of
retaining popular support. Romania's first
president, Ion Iliescu, was openly sceptical of
Western influences and famously argued for
'original democracy' (a distinctly Romanian
form of democracy rather than an adoption of
the Western European model). Similarly, early
post-socialist administrations were suspicious of
foreign investment (and for much of the early
1990s foreign investors were not permitted to
own land in Romania). Romania showed little
inclination to embrace the agenda of the
European Union with regard to issues such as
economic reform, respect for the principles of
democracy and human and minority rights: on
the other hand, the EU's position with regard to
Romania during this period was distinctly cool
(Phinnemore, 2001).
However, during the mid-1990s the
'neo-communist' administration looked to
escape from its increasing international isolation
and recognized that its main hope for economic
recovery lay in closer ties with Europe (Gallagher,
2001). Romania was also concerned to distance
itself from the turmoil in the former Yugoslavia.
Consequently, Romania's leaders gradually
moved towards embracing the agenda of the
EU. Romania signed an association agreement
with the Union in February 1993 and submitted
a formal application for membership in 1995
(Phinnemore, 2001). The prospect of EU
membership led both Romania and Hungary to
sign a historic treaty of friendship in 1996 that
involved recognition of the existing borders
and guaranteed rights for the Hungarians of
Transylvania.
The increasing reconciliation between
Romanians and Hungarians was demonstrated
after 1996 when the ethnic Hungarian political
party joined a centre-right coalition govern-
ment. This collaboration was continued (either
in the form of parliamentary alliances or formal
coalitions) following the elections of 2000 and
2004. Romania's progress in achieving political
stability
of
influence
at
different
stages
in
Romania's recent history.
Romania's location in South-east Europe
meant that the country was long subject to
'Eastern' (Ottoman and Russian) influences.
However, after achieving political indepen-
dence in the second half of the 19th century
Romania's rulers looked to Western Europe
for models. During the period 1860-1870 the
political elite adopted almost everything it could
(including a constitution, parliament, legislative
system, universities and even an alphabet) from
Western Europe, with France representing a
particular model (Boia, 2001). However, during
the 1880s there was a counter-reaction and
many Romanian intellectuals sought to stress
native (rather than 'imported') values. By the
end of the 19th century the struggle between
'indigenism' and 'Westernism' was firmly
rooted in discourse about Romania's identity
(Verdery, 1991).
Nevertheless, by the inter-war period
Romania was at its most integrated ever into the
European economy and therefore most exposed
to Western influences. However, a nationalist
emphasis on native values remained dominant
for much of this period and during the 1930s
found expression in the rise of the extreme
Right in Romanian politics. After the
Communist Party take-over of power in late
1947, all emphasis on national values was
firmly suppressed in favour of socialist inter-
nationalism. Moreover, under Soviet influence,
priority was given to 'Eastern' (i.e. Russian)
influences on Romanian history and cultural life
(Deletant, 1991; Verdery, 1991). Once again,
there was a reaction in favour of national values
and during the 1960s Romania pursued a
course of asserting its national independence
from the Soviet Union. This found its most
extreme expression under Nicolae Ceau
s
escu
who, from the 1970s onwards, promoted a
version of Romanian-ness that was hostile to
was
recognized
in
1998
when
the
