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The third set of questions is related to design processes:
• What are and should be the processes involved during design?
- How are transfer, transformation and de/re-contextualization carried out in
design?
- How (well) are these processes carried out in the development of require-
ments, product and their values from experience, expectations and aspirations
of individuals?
- How (well) are these processes carried out in the development of require-
ments, product and their values from experience, expectations and aspirations
of the collective?
- How (well) are these processes carried out in the development of require-
ments, product and their values from social norms and motives?
- How should transfer, transformation and de/re-contextualization be carried out
in design processes for improvement of pre-design and post-design processes?
• What is the role of identity in the development of requirements, product and their
values?
One potential issue is the difficulty of carrying out empirical research into the
design-society cycle. For instance, effort required to unearth historical detail
required might be huge, and might require design researchers to work together
with historians. Further, the number of events in a cycle can be too many to be
investigated in depth. A possible alternative might be 'to focus only on significant
events' as a method. For instance, the story of Longitude seems to have only a
handful of significant events: Scilly disaster, formation of Longitude Prize, expe-
rience of Harrison with clocks, experience of Maskelyne on astronomical phenom-
ena, conflict of interest between aspiration and duty of Maskelyne, knowledge of
previous solutions and their value, and intervention of the king. This raises further
methodological questions: which events are significant, and how should signifi-
cance be decided so that research can be carried out with external validity?
References
Chakrabarti A (2013) Understanding influences on engineering creativity and innovation: a
biographical study of twelve outstanding engineering designers and innovators. Int J Des
Creat Innov 1(1):56-68
Dunlap GD, Shufeldt HH (eds) (1972) Dutton's navigation and piloting, 12th edn. Naval Institute
Press, ISBN 0-87021-163-3
Pahl G, Beitz W (2002) Engineering design - a systematic approach. Springer, London
Taura T (2013) Motive of design: roles of pre- and post-design in highly advanced products. In:
Chakrabarti A, Blessing LTM (eds) An anthology of theories and models of design: philoso-
phy, approaches and empirical explorations. Springer, London
Taylor EGR (1971) The Haven-finding art: a history of navigation from Odysseus to captain cook.
Hollis & Carter, London. ISBN 0-370-01347-6
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