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nesses to incorporate environmental and health considerations in the design and
redesign of products and processes” (EPA 2001). It merges several non-
regulatory, voluntary initiatives related to the synthesis of chemicals that are
safer, an analysis of the risks related to these chemicals, and the development of
alternative chemicals and technologies (EPA 2012e). It promotes a collaborative
process to improve product design, provides information and tools on design
strategies and alternative ingredients, and uses technical assistance, design
methods, and a labeling program to create incentives for participation. To
achieve its goals, Design for Environment has undertaken cutting-edge research
on tools and approaches for advancing safer product design, undertaken a num-
ber of supply chain partnerships on more sustainable materials, and engaged in
significant outreach with industry and other partners (EPA 1999). Design for the
Environment partnerships consider human health and environmental implica-
tions, the performance of products, and the economic effects of traditional and
alternative chemicals, materials, technologies, and processes (EPA 2006b). In
recent years, a primary goal of the Design for the Environment program has
been to achieve “informed substitution”, that is, moving from a chemical that
raises health or environmental concerns to chemicals that are known to be safer
or to nonchemical alternatives (EPA 2009). According to EPA (2009), “the
goals of informed substitution are to minimize the likelihood of unintended con-
sequences, which can result from a precautionary switch away from a chemical
of concern without fully understanding the profile of potential alternatives, and
to enable a course of action based on the best information—on the environment
and human health—that is available or can be estimated.” Design for the Envi-
ronment achieves its goals through both alternatives-assessment processes and
recognition programs. Through its alternatives-assessment processes, Design for
the Environment has evaluated alternatives to polybrominated diphenylethers in
furniture flame retardants, tetrabromobisphenol-A in printed-circuit boards, and
bisphenol-A in thermal cash-register tape, and is examining alternatives to
phthalates in wire and cable. The Design for the Environment Safer Product
Labeling Program evaluates products and labels the ones that meet the pro-
gram's safety standards (EPA 2012f). EPA establishes minimum toxicologic
criteria for individual cleaning-formulation constituents, and manufacturers
submit alternatives that meet the criteria for third-party certification, creating a
marketplace for alternative formulations. EPA has developed detailed transpar-
ent criteria for evaluation for both programs.
Green Chemistry and Engineering
Green chemistry is another innovative approach to environmental protec-
tion that emerged from the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 (EPA 2011d).
Green chemistry and engineering incorporates hazard reduction and waste
minimization into design at the molecular level to reduce hazards throughout the
life cycle. Green chemistry has been defined as “the utilization of a set of prin-
ciples that reduces or eliminates the use or generation of hazardous substances in
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