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2. Organisms interact with their abiotic and biotic environments (inclusionary rule).
3. The distributions of organisms and their interactions depend on contingencies
(exclusionary rule).
4. Environmental conditions are heterogeneous in space and time (causal rule).
5. Resource are finite and heterogeneous in space and time (causal rule).
6. All organisms are mortal (causal rule).
7. The ecological properties of species are the result of evolution (causal rule).
For those wanting to know more details on the contemporary science, a text such
as that by Begon et al. (
2006
) provides a useful overview of Ecology science.
2.3.2 Ecosystem Models in the Creative Arts
A number of different “ecosystemic” approaches exist in the arts. Examination finds
that they are quite diverse and only loosely drawn from biological concepts, proba-
bly due to multiplicitous and nebulous understandings of Ecology outside Biology,
and various metaphoric interpretations of the ecosystem concept.
Design and Architecture.
Given the state of human impact on the environment,
much theory in landscape and architectural design has sought to bring ideas from
Ecology and ecosystems into the design lexicon (see, e.g. Bell
1999
). Through a
greater understanding of nature's process and function, it is believed that designers
can better integrate human interventions within the landscape, minimising their de-
tritus impact, or at least appreciate how design decisions will effect change to the
environment over the life of a project, and beyond. In architecture,
Design Ecolo-
gies
seeks connections between biological Ecology, human communication, instruc-
tion and aesthetics, with an emphasis on “novel concepts of ecologically informed
methodologies of communication through design practice” (Murray
2011
).
Generative design
uses processes adopted from evolution as a source of design
variation and customisation. It brings a number of desirable features to the design of
artefacts, including a means to generate and manage complexity; self-maintenance
and self-repair; design novelty and variation (McCormack et al.
2004
). As discussed
(Sect.
2.2
), evolutionary methods such as the IGA are useful for generative design
when the designer has only a rudimentary grasp of the underlying generative mech-
anism that is being evolved. They permit design changes without the need to under-
stand in detail the configuration or parameter settings that generated the design. The
application of generative design to customised manufacture has become feasible in
recent years due to the availability of automated, programmable fabrication devices,
such as 3D printers, laser cutters, etc. that can inexpensively translate computer rep-
resentations into one-off physical objects. This allows physical generative designs
to be customised to individual constraints or desires on commercial manufacturing
scales.
Design associations with Ecology and ecological principles often suggest the
superiority of natural over human design, and ecosystems embracing harmony and
