Strengthening Landscape Ecology’s Contribution to a Sustainable Environment - Landscape Ecology for Sustainable Environment and Culture - page 28

decisions are made, and how actions are and can be influenced by scientific
evidence.
We argue that landscape ecology also suffers from a lack of effective imple-
mentation (see Naveh 2007 ;Wu 2012 ). We agree with Nassauer and Opdam
( 2008) that landscape design can create collaboration between scientists and
practitioners and improve the impact of landscape science, and that landscape
planning is the appropriate process for implementation. However, while the
principles of landscape design are mostly well established (see Lindenmayer and
Hobbs 2007 ), the enactment these principles remain a major challenge (Haila
2007 ). Hard choices and decisions need to be confronted, as making do with
impoverished, low-productivity parts of landscapes will probably doom many
landscape designs to failure (Mac Nally 2007 ). These choices are as much a
political and social challenge as they are a scientific challenge. Most dysfunctional
landscapes have resulted from poor institutional arrangements and landscape
governance, and unsustainable societal values. Ultimately, solutions require
reforming governance arrangements at all levels and transforming societal values
(Fischer et al. 2012 ; Swaffield 2012 ).
There are several core practical approaches where landscape ecology and
landscape ecologists can help bridge the implementation gap (see Bammer ( 2005 )
for a detailed discussion). One essential approach is through engagement and
direct interaction among researchers and stakeholders, including policy makers
(van Kerkhoff and Lebel 2006 ; Gibbons et al. 2008 ). Knowledge exchange
between different research disciplines, planners, land managers and other stake-
holders builds trust, establishes lines of communication, and allows the identifi-
cation of common goals. Clear communication of the beneficial outcomes of
landscape sustainability is essential, as the costs of implementing actions are often
high and may take many decades before the benefits are realised. For instance, a
meta-analysis of restoration projects found that only those which are seen to be of
direct benefit to people are likely to be funded and supported in the long run
(Aronson et al. 2010 ). However, active participation in implementation requires
the involvement of all stakeholders, including landscape ecologists, which can be
difficult and time consuming (Lang et al. 2012 ).
2.5 Strengthen Links Between Landscape Ecology
and Restoration Ecology
The ultimate issue in managing landscape sustainability is to protect what works
since it is difficult and expensive to replace or repair (Ehrlich 2007 ). However, given
the current degraded state of many of the world's landscapes, ecosystem restoration
is one of the most proactive approaches for reversing degradation and biodiversity
loss (Hobbs et al. 2006 ; Tongway and Ludwig 2010 ). Ecological restoration is the
process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged,
or destroyed, and is emerging as an important environmental discipline because it