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These results, consistent with previous psychological research ( see Theoretical
background), indicate that:
￿ The construction of children's mental maps of the home-school area relies at
least partially on large-scale spatial skills (learning environmental space by
locomotion and integration of information over time);
￿ The internalization of the configuration of larger spaces (test 2 and 3) that cannot
be learned by experience but through symbolic representations e.g. maps, aerials
or models ( geographical ! figural space ) depends more on children's small-
scale spatial abilities.
Therefore, primary school map education should recognize and support these
both ways of learning spaces (especially when build up from local to global).
Further research could clarify if children's ability to construct a coherent geo-
graphical world view before leaving primary school could be reinforced through:
￿ Teaching methods that emphasize the conceptualization of the local environ-
ment starting from mental maps based on landmarks;
￿ Exploring spaces with digital cartographic tools, specifically designed for chil-
dren, that enable adaptive zooming (large-scale, oblique view images with
pictorial landmarks
$
small-scale plan views with more abstract symbols).
19.5 Conclusion
Even by the end of primary school a majority of children in this sample still show a
defragmented geographical world view. The lack of correlation between their
representation of the familiar area versus larger spaces support previous research
pointing out at least a partial dissociation between large-scale spatial abilities,
needed for way-finding in the local neighbourhood, and small-scale spatial abilities,
applicable when internalizing a large geographical space through symbolic
representations such as maps and models. Further research could point out which
teaching activities respond best to these findings and what new possibilities digital
cartography has to offer.
Acknowledgements I am very grateful to the teachers and pupils for their willingness to partici-
pate in this study and I would especially like to thank student teachers Caroline Maes, Sofie
Rosiers, Virginie Vandevelde and Liesbet Van Rosendaal who assisted me in the data collection.
This research would not have been possible without their help.
References
Catling SJ (1979) Maps and cognitive maps: the young child's perception. Geography 64:288-295
Downs R, Stea D (1977) Maps in minds. Harper & Row, New York
Harwood D, Rawlings K (2001) Assessing young children's freehand sketch maps of the World.
Int Res Geogr Environ Educ 10:20-45
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