Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
supermarket labeled as cow, calf, pig, or sheep. Some cultures object to choosing
whole fish. Instead, one is more likely to choose a T-bone steak, veal cutlet, pork
tenderloin, mutton, or salmon steak. Foods are removed from their “natural” forms
of “dead animal flesh” and are then trimmed, packaged, and renamed to appear less
vulgar (Levi-Strauss 1983). Table 4.2 illustrates the conversion of foods from nature
through culture and ultimately into foods that form the dishes and cuisines that are
selected by individuals.
Certain foods are accepted or rejected based on whether they are perceived as
“natural.” For example, an underlying psychological fear of “unnatural” or “unhealth-
ful” substances, such as pesticides, may cause individuals to avoid foods sprayed with
pesticides since they are perceived as harmful. However, foods in their natural and
unprocessed forms may still provide a breeding ground for microbial contamination
and be unsafe. For example, rye can be contaminated with the fungus ergot, which
causes ergotism and behavioral disorders (Bennett and Klich 2003, pp. 497-516).
Peanuts can be contaminated by aflatoxin-B1,
1
, a known liver carcinogen (pp. 497-516).
A wide variety of natural and synthetic substances is added to foods to make them
safe for storing and consuming over longer periods of time. Some of these chemi-
cals repel insects; stabilize emulsions to prevent separation; add flavors and colors to
increase palatability and visual acceptance; and add antioxidants to minimize oxida-
tion of fats to protect flavor, all of which influence food choices (Williams 1975).
Some cultures categorize foods as hot or cold, not in
temperature
, but in the way
the foods supposedly affect the body in different philosophical systems. “Hot” and
“cold” foods also affect social relations because they represent nutrition and medi-
cine in different ways (Pelto et al. 1989). Those who consume too much hot or cold
foods may fall ill (Pelto et al. 1989). According to the hot-cold system, a balance of
hot and cold foods is vital if one is to remain healthy.
While some humans rely on a meat-based diet as the principal source of suste-
nance, others rely on plants. Some believe human beings are not meant to eat animals.
Vegetarian eating styles cover a broad spectrum (Figure 4.3). The bridging characteris-
tic between vegan eating habits, lacto-ovo-vegetarian, lacto-vegetarian, and semiveg-
etarian eating patterns is the complete or partial avoidance of meat. Vegetarian eating
and vegetarianism are two different entities, although they often appear together.
Vegetarianism
is based on the belief that particular food and lifestyle behaviors may
affect health and nutritional status (Twigg 1983, Dwyer 1995). Religious beliefs may
also be expressed in food customs and practices (see Chapter 3).
In fact, there is a biological need for both animal and plant foods. If selected
from animal products, protein is more readily available, and of higher biological
value, than it is from plants. Some individuals may prefer one form of protein to the
other; yet, many combine animal products with plant products. Rather than being
a dichotomous choice, there is growing consensus that a spectrum of vegetarian
and nonvegetarian eating patterns exists (Dwyer 1995), as illustrated in Figure 4.3.
The only absolute taboo is that most humans would agree that choosing to eat other
humans is not acceptable (Arens 1979).
For humans to adopt and accept new foods, there are certain psychological and
cultural criteria that must be met (Fieldhouse 1996). There must be an advantage
to adopting the new foods into their existing diets, and the new foods must be
