Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
status, and easier-to-prepare foods used to proclaim one's economic standing to oth-
ers (Atkins and Bowler 2001). Conversely, in times of economic hardship, choices
become limited, food portions become meager, and those who must rely on help
such as food stamps or food distribution programs are often stigmatized (Atkins and
Bowler 2001).
Economic strains may also help to strengthen cultural ties and identity, especially
for immigrants (Counihan and Van Esterik 1997, p. 424). For example, some African
American communities in the rural South continue to choose traditional foods and
cooking methods to reinforce their cultural connections to enduring a formerly bru-
tal society and to ensure that these customs will be passed on to future generations
(p. 424).
Limited income may also limit food choices due to lack of knowledge about nutri-
tion (Pelto et al. 1989, p. 217). Instead, families with a low-wage earner may try to
imitate the diets of the cultural norm, leading to overexpenditure on choices such as
expensive “junk foods” while neglecting the less-expensive—and often more nutri-
tious—alternatives (Atkins and Bowler 2001). Although higher levels of education
often allow better access to fresh fruits and vegetables, they do not necessarily lead
to healthier food choices (Atkins and Bowler).
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Political influences on food availability may have cultural consequences on food
choices. During times of political discord, food can be used as a tool to reward and
to punish. Withholding food may be a way in which cultural beliefs are expressed;
however, food restriction also limits the variety of food choices. Food policies can
also change the way food is acquired, and certain methods of food acquisition may
surface that are culturally insensitive.
As food distribution continues to expand across the globe, political decisions that
affect interacting food systems will ultimately affect food choices. Government food
policies have large impacts on the cost of food insofar as price is a strong determi-
nant of consumption. These policies also have potent influences on food selection.
Food strategy designs, price guarantees, and import and export regulations are fre-
quently of political origin (Weinbaum 1982). Since food is required for sustenance, it
is a powerful channel for communication to establish connection, create obligations,
and exert influence (Counihan 1999).
Regional conflicts and domestic instability often disrupt food supplies and limit
food choices and may lead to hunger and malnutrition (Weinbaum 1982, Drèze and
Sen 1991). Some recent examples include a famine in North Korea, the food shortages
in Darfur, and the conflicts in the Middle East. In regions of conflict, receiving daily
food rations may be dependent on safe passage of food convoys. These situations may
promote unorthodox food selection methods that may not be culturally acceptable,
such as theft, begging for money, and begging for food items (Booth 2006).
Purposefully withholding food from one's own family is an intolerable act in most
cultures. However, restricting food choices has universally been used as a political
weapon (Lappe and Collins 1978). For example, Stalin's political decisions included
the system of collectivization, resulting in the seizure of all privately owned farms,
