Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
neurotransmission (Georgieff and Rao 2001). In an early case study, infants of moth-
ers who had pernicious anemia (caused by vitamin B
12
deficiency) or were vegan (that
is, did not consume foods of animal origin, the source of vitamin B
12
) were at risk
for delayed developmental milestones (Lampkin and Saunders 1969). Observational
studies among children with B
12
deficiency in the Netherlands showed that infants
whose mothers were on a macrobiotic diet (restricted in animal foods) and who
were weaned onto macrobiotic diets had delayed motor and language development
compared with children who were omnivores (Dagnelie and van Staveren 1994).
Although they started to consume omnivorous (foods of plant and animal origin) or
lactovegetarian (plant-based with milk products) diets by age 6 years, their cognitive
functioning was impaired compared with the consistently omnivorous at age 10 to 18
years (Louwman et al. 2000). These data are consistent with cross-sectional findings
among Guatemalan schoolchildren (Allen at al. 1999, Penland et al. 2000.) The find-
ings suggest that B
12
deficiency is likely to be a risk factor for developmental delays,
but further evidence is needed, preferably from supplementation trials.
conclusIons
There is very strong evidence that iodine deficiency causes cognitive deficits. There
is also strong evidence that chronic undernutrition leading to linear growth retar-
dation and IDA have long-lasting affects on children's cognitive development and
behavior. Most studies suggest that breastfeeding is associated with a small benefit
in IQ, but problems with confounding have not been fully addressed. Several other
nutrients, such as zinc, may affect children's development, but the evidence is incon-
sistent, and further research is needed.
RefeRences
Allen, L.H., Penland, J.G., Boy, E., DeBaessa, Y., and Rogers L.M. 1999. Cognitive and neu-
romotor performance of Guatemalan schoolers with deficient, marginal and normal
plasma vitamin B-12 [abstract].
FASEB Journal
13:A544.
American Academy of Pediatrics. 2005. Policy statement: breastfeeding and the use of human
milk.
Pediatrics
115:496-506.
Anderson, J.W., Johnstone, B.M., and Remley, D.T. 1999. Breast-feeding and cognitive devel-
opment: a meta-analysis.
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
70:525-535.
Ashworth, A., Morris, S.S., Lira, P.I.C., and Grantham-McGregor, S.M. 1998. Zinc supple-
mentation and behavior in low birth weight term infants in NE Brazil.
European Journal
of Clinical Nutrition
52:223-227.
Barrett, D.E., Radke-Yarrow, M., and Klein, R.E. 1982. Chronic malnutrition and child behav-
ior: effects of early caloric supplementation on social and emotional functioning at
school age.
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Bentley, M.E., Caulfield, L.E., Ram, M., Santizo, M.C., Hurtado, E., Rivera, J.A., Ruel,
M.T., and Brown, K.H. 1997. Zinc supplementation affects the activity patterns of rural
Guatemalan infants.
Journal of Nutrition
127:1333-1338.
Berkman, D.S., Lescano, A.G., Gilman, R.H., Lopez, S.L., and Black, M.M. 2002. Effects of
stunting, diarrhoeal disease, and parasitic infection during infancy on cognition in late
childhood: a follow-up study.
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