Information Technology Reference
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embedded in their observations is that it is our sense of powerlessness in
the face of such diffusion and complexity that makes us believe that tech-
nological advancement is inevitable and inexorable.
In contrast to the deterministic view of technology is the belief that
technologies are shaped by multiple factors in its social and political con-
text. Williams and Edge (1996) assert that there are choices (though not
necessarily conscious choices) inherent in both the design of individual
artefacts and systems, and in the direction or trajectory of innovation pro-
grammes, and that these choices may have differing implications for soci-
ety and for particular social groups. If this is the case, then technology can
be seen as negotiable, with scope for particular groups and forces to shape
technologies to their ends, and the possibility of different kinds of techno-
logical and social outcome. Although the form and direction of future
technologies may be negotiable, there are many reasons why we may not
exercise real freedom of choice. New technologies tend to develop cumu-
latively, erected upon the knowledge base and social and technical infra-
structure of existing technologies, and where increasing returns are sought
for investment, this can result in 'lock-in' to established solutions (Williams
and Edge 1996). The way in which ICT design is approached also exerts a
powerful influence on the possible outcomes.
2.5 The Influence of Design Methods for ICT
From the earliest experimental days up until the early 1970s, the use of
computers was confined to specialist research laboratories, and computing
operations were primarily carried out by centralized, mainframe com-
puters. Since they were both designed by, and used by, programmers and
engineers, there was no need to involve anyone else in the process.
During the 1970s, however, developments in electronics - in particular
the very large-scale integrated circuits and silicon chips - made possible
the microprocessor and visual display units with integrated keyboard and
screen. This led to the advent of the personal computer, which in turn en-
abled the migration of computers out of specialized laboratories and onto
the desktop. When their potential for promoting efficiency and reducing
costs became evident to leading business institutions, large-scale IT system
development projects began to proliferate both in commercial organisa-
tions and in the public sector. At that time, appropriate off-the-shelf soft-
ware was not available and organisations wanting to take advantage of the
benefits of computerization had to finance and develop their own 'be-
spoke' applications. This was a costly exercise, undertaken only by the
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