Information Technology Reference
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8.2 Institutionalizing the Shift in Organisations
The content of this chapter applies primarily to institution-led citizen par-
ticipation and engagement. This is because most large-scale ICT develop-
ments intended for the public take place in institutional settings (whether
public sector or private sector organizations are involved). It is staff who
work in these organizations who are likely to have responsibilities for
gaining the participation and engagement of members of the public in dif-
ferent aspects of an ICT design and development project. There are, of
course, generic aspects to the guidance. For example, the processes in-
volved in communication and in envisioning alternative futures described
in Chapter 9 are equally applicable in citizen-led activities. However, they
are unlikely to be supported with the necessary resources more usually as-
sociated with institution-led initiatives.
Achieving a shift in ICT design away from its technical focus towards a
sociotechnical focus (where citizen engagement is the norm) will draw
heavily from good practice in civic planning and community development
contexts. There are however some important differentiating characteristics
of citizen engagement in ICT development contexts which we have taken
into account in formulating the strategies presented here. Most ICT devel-
opments start with a concept (usually technological, usually developed by
technologists). Then typically follow a logical sequence of steps in which
the requirements are specified, the hardware and software are designed and
the outcome is then implemented - again, usually by technologists. Where
a user-centred approach is applied (which does not happen in all cases),
then users may become involved in specifying their requirements at an
early stage in the development cycle. Then, at a later stage, in testing a so-
lution - possibly a prototype - defined and developed by ICT developers.
By this second stage it is often considered too late to make more than mi-
nor modifications to the design. By contrast, when citizens are engaged
successfully in public policy making and planning, following established
good practice (e.g. National Forum on Health - Canada, Wyman et al.
1999) the objective is often to allow people to identify and explore alter-
native options at an early stage. This means that further development is
focused upon preferred solutions - and avoids the wastefulness of devel-
oping 'solutions'. Which are seen as lacking in relevance or usefulness
by those in whose interests they have been developed.
In an analogous way, an approach to ICT design which involves citizens
and focuses on creating sociotechnical solutions could similarly involve
people in identifying and exploring options in ICT provision, envisioning
outcomes and achieving consensus on preferred solutions. The preferred
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