Information Technology Reference
In-Depth Information
information systems implementation projects over past decades, many in
the public sector. Failures and shortfall in performance compared with
promised delivery are often associated with design approaches drawing on
the engineering model, which concentrate mostly (sometimes, entirely) on
developing and delivering a functioning technical system. This means that
little or no account is taken of the social system with which the technical
system is inevitably linked. Nor is there recognition of the need to design
the technical and social systems in parallel to achieve an optimized, effec-
tive sociotechnical system. There is therefore no perceived need to engage
with members of those social systems during the development process.
The consequence of such an approach is that the technical system may be
entirely sound in terms of the software engineering. The design of the user
interface may also be sound. Nevertheless, the system delivered for use is
unlikely to be readily assimilated by the intended users for a variety of rea-
sons. It is likely that there will be a poor fit with key aspects of the human
and organizational systems (e.g. existing ways of working, information
needs and communication patterns). The impact of this is often seen in
slow adoption, even rejection, of the ICT system.
7.1.2 Limited Practice of Participatory Design
A second barrier is the limited use of participatory approaches to the de-
sign of ICT systems. As we note in Chapter 2, this has partly occurred for
historical reasons. When computers were the preserve of experts in the
laboratory, their design was a matter of programming and engineering.
Since computers were both designed by and used by programmers and en-
gineers, there was no need to involve anyone else in the process. As com-
puters moved into the workplace, systems designers came to recognize that
the wider range of users have different needs, and many accept that the
best way to identify these is to engage directly with users. But, while user-
centred design and inclusive design approaches are being promoted and
encouraged within the ICT development industry, they are not yet part of
mainstream ICT design activity. For example, most standard 'waterfall'
type models of existing ICT design methods only allow for involvement of
particular groups of users or role holders at specific and fairly limited
stages of the design process. This is very different from engaging freely
and widely with a range of user/citizen stakeholders and empowering them
to inform design decisions throughout the process. For these stakeholders
to enjoy real influence, they need to be actively engaged in envisioning the
possibilities, identifying and understanding the technical options, and ex-
ploring alternative sociotechnical solutions.
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