Biology Reference
In-Depth Information
has different knowledge requirements from the last two. For effective prevention,
the pathway analyses begun here need to be extended and refined for particular
nations or sub-national jurisdictions (e.g., Galapagos) having quarantine programs.
Pathway details that might reasonably be added, but which I have ignored, include
type and volume of pet trade, quarantine-agency records, trade-good types and
volumes, and major trade partners. These more detailed analyses will improve risk
estimates for quarantine purposes within particular jurisdictions. Again, these
could be supplemented by any predictive correlations that might be identified
between economic variables and pathway importance. A few rough estimates of
herpetological traffic within cargo exist for limited places and times (e.g.,
O'Dwyer et al., 2000; Gill et al., 2001), but focused risk assessment for these taxa
seems absent.
Research is also needed to identify interdiction methods that can be applied
safely and effectively to treat large volumes of cargo. As one example of what is
needed, in response to the coqui invasion in Hawaii and the fact that most of its
rapid spread around the state was due to transport in potted plants, State officials
modified a hot-water drench system (previously used for cleaning cut-flower
exports of insect pests) to remove coqui from infested nursery plants. This method
kills a variety of other invasive pests (e.g., slugs, earthworms) as well. Broad adop-
tion of that or a closely related technology could prove useful as a general treatment
to transform the nursery trade from an extremely dirty pathway to a much safer one.
That method, however, is currently applied in few jurisdictions and only for coqui
treatment. Similar treatment methods need to be identified and developed for a
variety of other high-risk cargo, including cargo containers and vessels.
It is also important to recognize that the modern phenomenon of alien introduc-
tions and invasions is not an ineluctable force of nature. It is a choice made by
humans - a choice of what to value and what to discount, a choice of when to act
or not to act. As such, biological invasions are in many important ways not prima-
rily biological phenomena at all, but social phenomena. Consequently, social
research into the drivers of biological invasions is highly relevant but almost wholly
lacking, and even acknowledgement of their importance in the biological literature
(which comprises the overwhelming majority of literature) on the topic is virtually
absent. Of particular importance would be (1) psychological research into the moti-
vations for and constraints upon responsible pet ownership, genesis of aesthetic
appreciation for ecosystems, and the myriad other factors that figure into how
humans make valuations regarding promulgation of or defense from alien species;
(2) social research into how best to apply incentives for responsible individual
behavior toward alien species; (3) political science research into improving respon-
siveness and successful behavior of institutions charged with responding to this
problem; and (4) economic research to identify the costs of alien herpetofaunal
invasions and any structural incentives that might improve internalization of these
costs. Research on the last-named is just beginning for alien reptiles and amphibi-
ans; model legislative tools have been developed for effectively responding to the
invasive-species threat more generally (C. Shine et al., 2000), but I know of no
work addressing the first two fields.
