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pesticides showed strong associations with T2D after adjusting for age, sex, BMI,
alcohol consumption, and cigarette smoking. Compared with the subjects in
the lowest tertile of each OC pesticide, adjusted ORs in the third tertile ranged
from 3.1 for heptachlor epoxide to 26.0 for oxychlordane. In the case of chemicals
belonging to the DDT family, adjusted ORs in the third tertile were in the range
from 10.6 for p,p′-DDT to 12.7 for p,p′-DDE. In this exploratory study with small
sample size, low-dose background exposure to OC pesticides was strongly associ-
ated with prevalent T2D in Koreans, even though absolute concentrations of OC
pesticides were not higher than that in other populations. The authors concluded
that Asians may be more susceptible to the adverse effects of OC pesticides than
other races. On the other hand, Rezg et al. (2010), in an extensive review, men-
tioned that OP pesticides may present an important risk factor to T2D induction.
Although the authors do not regard their findings as definitive evidence, but, the
potential implications nonetheless deserve serious consideration and may require
substantial revision.
15.7 Factors Contributing to Health Risks of Pesticide Exposure
It has been long recognized that the inability of the farmers to understand and follow label
instructions, due to illiteracy, in addition to unsafe use or misuse of pesticides, is among
the major factors of pesticide poisoning in developing countries (Karisson 2004). The
potential for pesticide poisoning in developing countries is, however, not limited to the
unsafe use or misuse of pesticides but it is also from accidental contamination. Such type
of contamination or poisoning may result from improper storage of pesticides, improper
disposal of pesticide containers, the use of empty containers for storing foodstuffs and
water, and the repacking of pesticides in smaller sizes and subsequent sale in open air
markets next to farm produce or foodstuffs (Al-Saleh 1994). Other sources of accidental
poisoning to farmers and community members include drift from sprayed fields, early
reentry to sprayed farms, and eating crops that have recently been sprayed or treated with
pesticides (Clarke et al. 1997).
In the light of a comparative study of pesticide use and exposure patterns in differ-
ent countries (e.g., Brazil, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Paraguay, Venezuela, Egypt, South Africa,
India, and Malaysia), Dinham (1993) concluded that in the third world countries, pesticides
cannot be used safely. Health and safety issues are exacerbated by a general lack of haz-
ard awareness; the lack of protective clothing or difficulty in wearing protective clothing
in tropical climates; shortage of facilities for washing after use or in case of accidents;
the value of containers for reuse in storing food and drink; illiteracy; labeling difficulties
related to language, complexity, or misleading information; lack of regulatory authorities;
and lack of enforcement. In many developing countries, families share the farm work.
Men, women, and children typically have different agricultural work roles. In the Benguet
district of the Philippines, nearly one third of all children and one half of all wives of all
farm workers help apply pesticides (Rola 1989).
In this context, it may be useful to report here the results of the questionnaires designed
to investigate the attitude and the behavior of the Egyptian farmers regarding pesticide
use and handling in two large provinces, for example, Sharkia Governorate (Ibitayo 2006)
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