Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
solubility. They are used in agriculture on a variety of fruits and vegetables, pet and live-
stock protection, and in suburban and urban areas, and gained popularity among the gen-
eral public as the more common household insecticide products available today for both
indoor and outdoor applications.
Most papers have dealt with pyrethroid determination in different food samples of veg-
etable origin, but animal matrices such tissues and milk have been less studied (Di Muccio
et al. 1997; Sun et al. 2003; Akre and MacNeil 2006; Fernández-Álvarez et al. 2008; Khay et al.
2009). Usually, routine detection of pyrethroid residues in tissues and milk from domestic
animals give negative or under MRL results (Battu et al. 2004; Fernández-Álvarez et al.
2008; Khay et al. 2009; Lutze et al. 2009; Sereda et al. 2009). However, in some regions of
Africa, aerial and ground sprayings to control the tsetse flies ( Glossina spp.) and also the
use of dip and pour-on applications of pyrethroids in cattle cause some concerns on the
environmental impact of such practices: for example, residues of pyrethroids in the dung
of treated animals have been associated with the death of dung beetles (Grant 2001).
Cats are particularly susceptible to the poisoning with permethrin, a pyrethroid widely
used in flea control products such as spot-ons, sprays, collars, and shampoos (Anadón et al.
2009; Poppenga and Oehme 2010). Most cases are due to the application of canine perme-
thrin flea products to cats, which is considered one of the most common causes of feline
deaths (Boland and Angles 2010).
14.5 Acaricides
Dicofol, an OC compound structurally related to the insecticide DDT, is a nonsystemic
acaricide with little insecticide activity, currently banned or severely restricted in many
countries. Most of the problems associated with this miticide are related to the manufac-
ture process and the subsequent presence of impurities such as DDTs, especially in the
technical product (Di Muccio et al. 1988; Qiu et al. 2005). Dicofol itself has been experi-
mentally found to cause eggshell thinning in several species of birds (Wiemeyer 1996;
Wiemeyer et al. 2001), although no adverse effects have been documented in field studies,
and rare detections of dicofol in the biota are generally low (Blus and Henny 1997). For
example, Hoferkamp et al. (2010), in their review, were unable to find any results for dicofol
in the Arctic environmental media.
However, in other parts of the world, the situation may differ. Malik et al. (2011) reported
for the first time, residues of this compound in birds from Pakistan, at levels ranging from
ND-155 ng/g WW in eggs collected from heronries at the River Ravi and the River Chenab
and attributed the detection to its use as a pesticide in agricultural applications. In bovine
milk sampled in India, dicofol was positive in 17 out of 325 (5.23%) samples, and in four of
these positive samples, it was above the MRL (Nag and Raikwar 2008).
14.6 Rodenticides
Unwanted nontarget domestic animal and wildlife exposures can occur when chemicals
are used to control and/or eradicate outbreaks of rodent (rats, mice, voles, and others) pests
 
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