Hydrogen - Energy Policy Analysis: A Conceptual Framework - page 201

cell vehicle development. General Motors began market testing a hundred Chevrolet Equinox fuel
cell sport utility vehicles. Daimler started leasing its Mercedes Benz B-Class fuel cell vehicle in
California in 2010 (Shenhar 2012). Other automobile manufacturers, including Toyota, Ford, and
Volkswagen, have developed fuel cell concept cars (USEIA 2008b).
Honda introduced its first fuel cell vehicle, called the FCX, in 1999 and in 2007 unveiled the first
production model of the FCX Clarity. Limited marketing of the FCX Clarity began in 2008 in the
United States and Japan. In 2011 the FCX Clarity was available in the United States only in the Los
Angeles area, where sixteen hydrogen filling stations are available; as of July 2009, ten drivers had
leased the Clarity for US$600 a month. Honda, which had 200 vehicles available for lease, stated it
could start mass-producing vehicles based on the FCX concept by the year 2020 ( Washington Times
2009). In 2010 Lotus Cars announced it was developing a fleet of hydrogen taxis in London (Jha
2010). Heavy-duty fuel cell vehicles in testing and preproduction include fuel cell buses manufac-
tured by Van Hool and New Flyer and an electric/hydrogen fuel cell hybrid semi-tractor produced by
Vision Motor Corporation (USDOE 2007). In 2005 fuel cell buses began testing at Sun Line Transit
in Thousand Palms, Alameda-Contra Costa Transit, and Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority
(California Energy Commission 2011). Buses have also been tested at Sacramento Municipal Utility
District and the University of California at Davis (Unnasch and Browning 2000).
All fuel cell vehicle concepts currently under development use electric motors to power the
wheels, typically accomplished through combination of an electric battery storage system and
an onboard hydrogen fuel cell. Depending on the degree of hybridization, a battery may provide
pure “plug-in” electricity to drive a vehicle some distance, after which the fuel cell takes over. A
battery system may be complemented by a hydrogen storage system and a fuel cell, in order to
extend driving range to 300 miles.
The primary impediments to deployment of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles include cost, fuel cell
durability, and restricted operational temperature range of the cell. The costs of current fuel cell
vehicles are high as a result of high component costs and the fact that the vehicles are either custom-
built or produced in limited quantities. Also of concern is achieving the necessary minimum range
for consumer acceptance (USEIA 2008b). The primary cost component of the fuel cell vehicle is
the fuel cell itself (Ekins, Hawkins, and Hughes 2010, 51), which has a life expectancy about half
that of an internal combustion engine. Thus, consumers would have to replace the fuel cell in order
to achieve a vehicle operating lifetime equivalent to that of a traditional engine. Other features of
fuel cell vehicles are reasonably well understood at this time and have been commercialized to
some extent in the current generation of hybrid vehicles (USEIA 2008b).
Hydrogen can also be used to power vehicles with internal combustion engines, or fuel cells on
electric vehicles. The hydrogen internal combustion engine is a slightly modified version of the
familiar gasoline-powered engine. However, intransigent problems of consumer acceptance have
plagued this type of vehicle due to difficulties in injecting highly flammable hydrogen through a
hot intake manifold without producing periodic loud reports comparable to gunfire, as the hydrogen
ignites prematurely and backfires. Consumers apparently are not fond of the sensation of being
shot at while driving down the street.
COSTS OF HYDROGEN UTILIZATION
Environmental Costs of Utilizing Hydrogen Technologies
As discussed above, potential environmental costs of using hydrogen technologies include dedica-
tion of land to its production, distribution, and use, and safety issues in production and distribution
facilities. Another issue to consider is the effect of hydrogen emissions on the atmosphere.