Wind - Energy Policy Analysis: A Conceptual Framework - page 123

to boaters and ocean tourists if covered by large numbers of wind turbines, affecting the tourist
industry in some areas. According to Christina Jarvis,
The construction, operation, and decommissioning of offshore wind facilities may have adverse
effects on the marine environment and marine wildlife species, increasing habitat fragmentation,
sedimentation and turbidity around turbines, levels of underwater noise and vibrations, effects
from electromagnetic fields around power cables, navigational hazards, and collisions between
birds and turbine blades. Many of the areas proposed for offshore wind development provide
habitat for various species of fish, marine mammals, marine turtles, invertebrates, and birds;
however, a thorough review of the short-term, long-term, and cumulative impacts of offshore
wind facilities on these species has yet to be conducted. (2005, 13-14)
Concern for the lack of data about effects of wind energy development on wildlife is prominent
in the few studies that have been published (Lindeboom et al. 2011; Fisher et al. 2010), most of
which concern European settings and ecosystems. Some studies that have concluded there are
hardly any negative effects on wildlife (Lindeboom et al. 2011) have been based on only a couple
of years of observation and were sponsored by proponents of wind energy development. Most
important is the lack of baseline data regarding the abundance and distribution of cetacean species
in offshore wind development areas (Dolman, Simmonds, and Keith 2003). Lack of experience
with offshore wind energy development in U.S. waters makes it impossible to project with preci-
sion the likely impacts on North American ecosystems and species, especially whales.
Activities with short-term impacts on marine wildlife, such as those occurring during construc-
tion and decommissioning of offshore wind development, include seismic exploration, drilling and
dredging operations, increased vessel traffic, and cable-laying activities. Activities with long-term
impacts on marine wildlife, such as those occurring during operation of a wind farm, include the
physical presence of the structures themselves, noise and vibrations from continuous operation of
turbines, generation of electromagnetic fields from cables, and increased vessel traffic (Dolman,
Simmonds, and Keith 2003).
According to one study, the risk of avian collisions with turbines is greater at offshore wind
farms than land-based wind developments. Birds may be affected by offshore wind development
through collisions with turbines, short-term habitat loss during construction activities, long-term
habitat loss during maintenance activities, and turbines acting as barriers to flight and to ecologi-
cal sites such as roosting and feeding grounds. Habitat disturbance and barrier effects of turbines
have been identified as the impacts with the greatest potential for conflict with birds (Exo, Hüp-
pop, and Garthe 2003).
Visual Impacts
Utility-scale wind energy facilities require relatively large areas for wind turbines when used to
generate electricity on a commercial scale, and large numbers of wind turbines may interfere with
aesthetic values associated with the natural terrain. One of the more controversial issues surrounding
development of offshore wind facilities is the aesthetic effect of wind turbines on the horizon, as
well as on the local communities and residents for whom the facilities will be visible (Jarvis 2005,
13). Many individuals find the aesthetic qualities of wind turbines less attractive than the natural
ridgelines and open expanses of ocean horizon on which they are generally located to secure a
viable wind energy resource. Although the high-voltage transmission tower was often viewed as
the symbol of progress and rural electrification by nearby residents in the 1940s, the wind turbine