Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
would come in the fourteen-state refining and marketing region of the north central midwestern
United States. Food prices will also rise because they reflect farm operating costs for fuel (Verleger
2011). Moreover, a report by the Cornell University Global Labor Institute maintains that Tran-
sCanada's claim that the Keystone XL pipeline will create a total of 119,000 jobs (direct, indirect,
and induced) is based on a flawed and poorly documented study by the Perryman Group, which
wrongly included over $1 billion in spending and over 10,000 person-years of employment for
a section of the project in Kansas and Oklahoma that is not part of Keystone XL and has already
been built (Cornell University Global Labor Institute 2011, 2). Thus, it appears the environmental
and dollar costs of Keystone XL may be much higher, and the employment benefits much lower,
than claimed by proponents of the project.
Seventy-one percent of oil consumption in the United States occurs in transportation, mostly as
fuel for cars and trucks where impacts are mostly on local air quality; only about 1 percent is
used to generate electricity, usually in emergency diesel generators (USEIA 2011a, Figure 2.0).
Thirty percent of natural gas is consumed generating electricity, and only 2 percent is used in
transportation, mostly in urban mass transit buses (USEIA 2011a, Figure 2.0). Electricity can be
generated using either fuel in combustion turbines, which are designed to start quickly to meet
peak demand for electricity. They normally run with natural gas as a fuel, although low-sulfur
fuel oil can also be used as needed. Combustion turbines operate like a jet engine: They draw
in air at the front of the unit, compress it, mix it with fuel, and ignite it. The hot combustion
gases then expand through turbine blades connected to a generator to produce electricity, as
illustrated in
Figure 4.3.
Environmental Costs
Because there are so many different impacts with varying degrees of intensity possible in a given
area, this chapter presents only a general discussion of the impacts of oil and gas exploration and
development upon the environment. Potential impacts are site-specific and can be determined only
by intensive and extensive studies of each site (USFS 1979).
Air quality is affected by all active phases of oil and gas exploration and development. The
primary air pollutants come from dust generated from vehicles on roads and around drilling sites
and emissions from vehicle and stationary engines used in drilling operations. In the production
phase, air pollutants can be produced by separation facilities, burning of unwanted gas, and vent-
ing of noxious vapors from storage tanks. Accidental explosions, fires, blowouts, oil spills, and
leaks can occur, causing potentially serious air pollution problems.
A serious problem can develop when working with “sour” natural gas. This gas contains hydro-
gen sulfide, which is highly toxic and flammable. It can represent a deadly hazard to personnel and
can form an explosive mixture. In Wyoming, it has resulted in wildlife mortalities (USFS 1979).
Sour gas must be “sweetened” (sulfur removed) near producing wells, since long-distance piping
is not possible. The process of removing sulfur from gas is complex; plants needed to accomplish
this can use up to 1,000 acres of land and cost several hundred million dollars. Plants can require
extensive pipeline systems and/or railroads to ship the sulfur. From 500 to 1000 construction
workers may be needed initially, and some 50 to 120 employees may be needed for operation and
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