Biology Reference
In-Depth Information
Vanuatu (Anonymous 2003; Parsons and Cuthbertson 2001), and several African
countries including Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, South Africa,
Somalia, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe (i.e., Bowen 2001; CABI 2004; Da Silva et al.
2004; Fessehaie et al. 2005; Frew et al. 1996; Hilliard 1977; MacDonald et al. 2003;
Nath 1988; Njoroge 1986, 1989, 1991; Strathie et al. 2005; Tamado and Milberg
2000; Tamado et al. 2002a; Taye et al. 2004b) (Fig. 12.2). Parthenium, a major weed
in Australia and India, is attaining a major weed status in other countries also.
12.2
History of Parthenium Infestations
Parthenium occurs naturally throughout the tropical and subtropical Americas from
southern United States of America (USA) to southern Brazil and northern Argentina
(Navie et al. 1996; Towers 1981). Parthenium in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile,
Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay appears different to those in North America with yel-
low flowers (Dale 1981). Genotypic studies confirmed the existence of distinct
North American and Central American populations (Graham and Lang 1998).
Parthenium was accidentally introduced into India in 1956 (Rao 1956), possibly
through contaminated seed imports from north America, and has since then spread
over most parts of the Indian subcontinent, including Pakistan (Shabbir and Bajwa
2006), Nepal (Adhikari and Tiwari 2004), Sri Lanka (Jayasurya 2005), and
Bangladesh (Navie et al. 1996). Sources of parthenium introductions in other Asian
countries are not fully known. In Australia, parthenium was first identified in 1955,
also possibly along with contaminated seed imports from Texas, USA, and was
proclaimed as a noxious plant in 1975 (Auld et al. 1982-1983). Currently, parthe-
nium mainly occurs in Queensland, (Chippendale and Panetta 1994; McFadyen
1992) but has the potential to spread throughout Australia (Adamson 1996). It is
believed that parthenium has spread to neighbouring Papua New Guinea and East
Timor Islands from Australia. In Africa, invasion of parthenium was reported in
Swaziland and Mozambique in mid 1960s, Kenya in mid 1970s, and Ethiopia,
South Africa and Zimbabwe in early 1980s. It is suspected that parthenium in
Ethiopia may have been introduced through contaminated grains from North
America (Fessehaie et al. 2005; Frew et al. 1996), but the mode and source of
introduction in other countries in Africa are not fully known. Genetic analysis sug-
gests that parthenium genotypes found in Australia, India, and Africa are possibly
originated from southern Texas, USA (Graham and Lang 1998).
12.3 Deleterious Effects
Parthenium causes severe human (Cheney 1998; Kololgi et al. 1997; McFadyen
1995; Rao et al. 1977; Wedner et al. 1986) and animal (Tudor et al. 1982; Kadhane
et al. 1992) health problems, agricultural losses (Firehun and Tamado 2006; Navie
