Regulation and Risk Assessment of 1,4-Dioxane - Environmental Investigation and Remediation - page 300

TABLE 6.20 (continued)
Occupational Settings with Potential Exposure to 1,4-Dioxane

Occupational Setting 1,4-Dioxane Occurrence Type of Exposure Exposure Level References

Production of dyes Solvent in colorants and

adhesives in felt tip pens and
fabric dyes

Inhalation, dermal
(also oral in the
case of children)

Felt tip pen dye, 11 mg/kg;
fabric dye, 4.7 mg/kg;
worker exposure not
measured; modeled child
exposure, 0.303 μg/(kg d)
for felt tip pens used
0.5 h/day

16

Production of cellulose
membranes

Direct use in solution
deposition of cellulose acetate
and cellulose triacetate
membranes for production of
i lters used in water treatment
and kidney dialysis

Inhalation, oral if
used in reverse
osmosis of
drinking water,
renal if used in
kidney dialysis

Risk is absent unless i lters
are not adequately l ushed
in i nal production stage;
worker exposure not
investigated

17

Production of magnetic
tape

Solvent for magnetic tape
pigment, up to 40%
1,4-dioxane

Inhalation 37-75 mg/m 3 18

Production of 1,4-
Dioxane at chemical
plants b

Synthesis (closed loop) Inhalation 0.18 mg/m 3 (59)/0.9 mg/m 3

0.08 mg/m 3 (18)/1.1 mg/m 3

18

Storage/drumming Inhalation 0.07 mg/m 3 (37)/40 mg/m 3

0.10 mg/m 3 (8)/10 mg/m 3

Waste disposal Inhalation 0.07 mg/m 3 (35)/0.4 mg/m 3

0.15-4.7 mg/m 3 (2)

Laboratory Inhalation 0.11 mg/m 3 (305)/0.6 mg/m 3

Production and drumming Inhalation 43 mg/m 3 (30)

Around storage tanks Inhalation 360-2880 mg/m 3 (2)

Sources: [1] NICNAS (1998); [2] Hertlein (1980, cited in NICNAS, 1998); [3] Rimatori et al. (1994, cited in NICNAS,
1998); [4] Okawa and Coye (1982, cited in NICNAS, 1998); [5] Salisbury and Arnold (1984); [6] Crandall and
Wilcox (1987); [7] Krake and Herrera-Moreno (1995); [8] Kullman (1993); [9] Hills et al. (1989); [10] MDH
(2000); [11] ATSDR (2005b); [12] Shearer and Hunsicker (1980); [13] USEPA (1997a); [14] Taylor et al. (1995);
[15] Smith (1986); [16] Hansen (2005); [17] Sirkar et al. (1978); and [18] VROM (1999).
Notes: TWA, Time-weighted average; PBZ, Personal breathing zone.
a

Ethoxylated surfactants comprise alkyl and alkyl phenol ether sulfates, PEGs, and ethoxylates of alcohols, alkyl phenols,
sorbitan esters, amides, and amines.

b

First value is median, numbers in parentheses are the number of samples; value following slash “/” is 90th percentile;
multiple rows are for data from different companies or different periods of record.

exposure to 1,4-dioxane; actual exposure is increasingly unlikely in the developed countries because
of improvements in worker health and safety training, use of personal protective equipment, and regu-
lation and monitoring of worker exposure. Occupational exposure to chemicals is a continuing issue
in manufacturing centers located in countries with less developed health and safety regulations.

6.5.4 R ISK FROM D ERMAL E XPOSURE TO 1,4-D IOXANE
Toxicity from dermal exposure to 1,4-dioxane is generally considered to be relatively low (ECB,
2002; ATSDR, 2004; VROM, 1999; NICNAS, 1998). 1,4-Dioxane was negative in the complete
skin carcinogenicity test using dermal exposure (King et al., 1973). As noted in Chapter 5, rhesus