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would have to sacrifice their own well-being to make up the shortfall. Hard times increased
the suffering of the poor, sowing the seeds of rebellion.
THE EMPEROR AND HIS COURT
Generally, the emperor's first-born son succeeded to the throne; other times it was the son
of a favorite wife; sometimes it was a prince of the blood. Murder of a likely candidate was
not unknown, especially when family factions struggled for power. In addition to family,
military leaders, and mandarins, another set of contenders for power in the imperial court
was the eunuchs. With little likelihood of conspiring to place their own sons on the throne,
eunuchs served as the emperor's bodyguards and sometimes as his trusted advisors. Often
they joined in the struggle for power by entering into alliances with royal factions. The
traditional role for the eunuchs was as guardians of the emperor's harem. Sometimes the
women in the harem numbered only a few; in some reigns, though, they numbered in the
thousands. By tradition, the emperor had a duty to supply dozens, even hundreds, of off-
spring for posterity. In doing so, he was thought to demonstrate the vigor of his rule. Usu-
ally it was the Chief Eunuch who chose the emperor's sexual partner. And that choice gave
the eunuchs a special power—providing the emperor with a son and possible heir as well
as providing the family of a favorite wife or concubine access to the throne and to the in-
ner circles of political power. In addition to his concubines, the emperor had several wives.
The eldest or sometimes his favorite was his consort. She exercised great power over the
harem, over the eunuchs, and over the hundreds of household servants. The consort was
deeply involved in the politics of succession, attempting to ensure that one of her sons be-
came emperor.
As stated, in principle the emperor's power was absolute. Without any explanation he
could order anyone to be seized and tortured to death. The emperor's personal symbol and
icon was the five-toed dragon; others might aspire to a dragon with four toes. Thus, his
throne was the Dragon Throne. In Manchu times, the emperor would place his symbol,
sometimes no more than a vermillion dot, on a royal decree. And appended to that decree
were the words “Tremble and Obey.” The emperor appointed his chief ministers, each of
whom ran one of the great departments of government. In Manchu times, there were six
major ministries, including the Board of Personnel (Civil Appointments), the Board of Fin-
ance, the Board of Punishment (courts and sentencing), and the Board of War.
Because the emperor was regarded as the mediator between heaven and earth, many
of his most important duties involved performing rituals that bestowed divine blessings on
China and its people. The emperor was the son of heaven, and his most important altar
was directly below heaven. This central location gave China its familiar name: The Middle
Kingdom. The most solemn ritual was the ritual of the winter solstice, during which a
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