Toxicity Issues: Indoor Air Quality - Nearly Zero Energy Building Refurbishment - page 339

corresponding to indoor residencies in Southwest Michigan. In the residences
object of that study, local naphthalene indoor sources were detected such as the use
of consumer products, the presence of attached garages, naphthalene combustion
products entering the houses and ETS to a smaller extent (Jia et al. 2010 ).

2.7.4 Trichloroethylene

Trichloroethylene (C 2 HCl 3 ) otherwise abbreviated as TCE is a chlorinated solvent
that can be found in air, water, soil, food and animal tissues (IARC 2013 ). The
main route of exposure to TCE is inhalation. Nevertheless, other pathways such as
water ingestion and dermal absorption of TCE when showering should be con-
sidered, particularly if drinking water is highly polluted (Fan et al. 2009 ). The
short-term exposure to TCE can lead to effects on the central nervous system, such
as sleepiness, fatigue, headache, confusion and excitement. It can also cause
nausea and vomiting followed by loss of coordination and drowsiness. Very
prolonged exposures can lead to coma, cardiac arrhythmias and even death. TCE is
classified as carcinogenic to humans, and it will be included in the IARC
Monograph 106, which is in preparation (IARC 2013 ). Other long-term effects are
neurological, liver and kidney damages (Foxall 2008a ).
The main indoor source of TCE is the use of consumer products, as it is used as
a solvent in wood stains, varnishes, finishes, lubricants, adhesives, typewriter
correction fluids, paint removers and cleaners (US EPA 2001 ). It has been reported
that TCE and tetrachloroethylene (PCE) later described, can be found indoors after
cleaning with chlorine bleach containing products, even with the ones not con-
taining TCE and PCE, so accumulation and formation processes should be also
considered (Odabasi 2008 ). Even emitted intermittently, indoor concentration of
TCE may remain higher than background values in relatively long periods, being
less reactive than other VOCs considered in this chapter such as benzene

(Atkinson et al. 2008 ).
Industrial emissions of TCE can affect to indoor concentrations in certain areas
and soil vapour intrusion can also occur though cracks in the foundations, espe-
cially at sites with historic use of TCE (McHugh et al. 2011 ). In the past, the main
use of TCE was as a solvent for metal surface cleaning and degreasing, but due to
toxicity concerns that use decreased in the 60 s (Doherty 2000a ). Nowadays,
approximately 80 % of the TCE in Europe is used as feedstock in the production of
fluorinated hydrocarbons and polymers. Other minor uses of TCE are the pro-
duction of special adhesives, high-tech ceramic production, and wool scouring
(European Chlorinated Solvent Association 2012 ).
Figure 9 shows TCE indoor and outdoor average concentrations obtained from
various studies. In the literature reviewed, there were more studies with data on
TCE, i.e., the EXPOLIS, but most of the values were below the detection limits: in
Helsinki, 97 % of indoor data, not detected outdoors (Edwards 2001), and in
Oxford, 95 % of indoor data and 87 % of outdoor data (Lai et al. 2004 ). In the
BASE study, TCE was detected in 66 % of the buildings (US EPA 2013a ). TCE