Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
increasing crop yields and agricultural productivity. Agricultural biotech-
nology is a collection of scientific techniques, including genetic engineering,
that are used to create, improve, or modify plants, animals, and
microorganisms. Genetic engineering (GE) techniques allow a precise alter-
ation of a plant's traits (facilitating the development of characteristics not
possible through traditional plant breeding), and permit targeting of a single
plant trait (decreasing the number of unintended characteristics that may occur
with traditional breeding).
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The commercial success of GE crop varieties typically requires that
biotechnology-derived trait enhancements be incorporated into successful
cultivars (cultivated varieties with useful agronomic properties), the devel-
opment of which requires significant knowledge of traditional plant breeding
and the availability of genetic material (germplasm). This complementarity has
been related to various institutional arrangements between seed and
technology suppliers.
GE crops are often classified into one of three generations (Panos). Crops
with enhanced input traits, such as herbicide tolerance, insect resistance, and
tolerance to environmental stresses (like drought), represent the first genera-
tion. GE crops benefit farmers and may also offer environmental benefits.
Second-generation crops include those with added-value output traits, such as
nutrient enhancement for animal feed. Consumers will benefit directly from
these products when they are available on the market. The third generation
includes crops that produce pharmaceuticals or improve processing of bio-
based fuels, and products beyond traditional food and fiber. At present,
adoption of GE crops is generally limited to those with first-generation traits,
which were tested on a large scale (field testing) in the 1980s to ensure that the
desired traits will perform under production conditions. Second- and third-
generation GE crops are in various stages of research and development.
Ten years after the first generation of GE varieties became commercially
available, they have been widely adopted by U.S. farmers, driven by expecta-
tions of higher yields, savings in management time, and lower pesticide costs.
Despite these benefits, environmental and consumer concerns may have
limited acceptance of agricultural biotechnology, particularly in Europe. In the
United States, foods containing GE ingredients currently available in the U.S.
market do not require labels, since the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has
determined that these foods are “substantially equivalent” to their non-GE
counterparts (Shoemaker et al., 2003; FDA, 1992). Thus, U.S. consumers have
been eating foods that contain GE ingredients (corn meal, oils, sugars) for the
past 10 years while remaining largely unaware of their GE content.
