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means that it is presented as something which is not yet known, or perhaps not yet
agreed upon by the viewer, hence as something to which the viewer must pay special
attention” (Kress and Van Leewuen, 2006, p. 181). Other cultures can share these
spatial meanings, or can have different ones, as our research suggests (see Part II,
“Culture of Interaction”).
The cultural differences are present not only on the spatial plane, but also on the
temporal plane, which is manifested, for example, by intonation. “As in visual com-
munication, the structure of a 'tone group,' an intonational phrase, is not a constituent
structure, with strong framing between elements, but a gradual, wave-like movement
from left to right (or, rather, from 'before' to 'after,' since in language we are dealing
with temporally integrated texts), and it is realized by intonation. Intonation creates
two peaks of salience within each 'tone group'—one at the beginning of the group,
and another, the major one [
]In
other words, there is a close similarity between sequential information structure in lan-
guage and horizontal structure in visual composition, and this attests to the existence
of deeper, more abstract coding orientations which find their expression differently in
different semiotic modes. Such coding orientations are culturally specific, certainly
where the horizontal dimension is concerned” (Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2006, p. 181).
The horizontal structure of composition is coupled with the vertical composition.
In the vertical structure, “what has been placed on the top is presented as the Ideal,
and what has been placed at the bottom is put forward as the Real. For something
to ideal means that it is presented as the idealized or generalized essence of the
information, hence also its [
...
], as the culmination of the New, at the end. [
...
] most salient part. The Real is then opposed to this
in that it presents more specific information (e.g., details), more 'down-to-earth'
information (e.g., photographs as documentary evidence, or maps or charts), or more
practical information [
...
]” (Kress and Van Leewuen, 2006, p. 187). Again, the
vertical structure is also culture-dependent.
An important complement to the horizontal and vertical axis is the center vs.
margin. “For something to be presented as Center means that it is presented as the
nucleus of the information to which all other elements are in some sense subservient.
The Margins are these ancillary, dependent elements” (Kress and Van Leewuen, 2006,
p. 196). All of the above structures can work together in concert. “One common mode
of combining Given and New with Center and Margin is the triptych” (Ibid., p. 197).
“The structure of the triptych, then, can be either a simple and symmetrical Margin-
Center-Margin structure or a polarized structure in which the Center acts as a Mediator
between Given and New or between Ideal and Real [
...
]. Though spoken English
has its own Given-New structure, this is not the case with the Ideal-Real and the
Center-Margin structures. This not to say that the meanings these structures express
cannot, in some form, be expressed in language, but rather that they are more readily
and frequently expressed visually, and that language, unlike visual communication,
has not developed 'grammatical' forms to express them” (Ibid., p. 199).
The above-mentioned structures provide the building blocks for employing UI
languages in the HCI/UI design. These design languages share an analogy to the
natural language, but are “the basis for how we create and interact with things in the
world” (Rheinfrank and Evenson, 1996, p. 65). And further, “design languages are
used to design objects that express what the objects are, what they do, how they are to
be used, and how they contribute to experience” (Ibid., p. 68). According to Sutherland
...
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