Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
environments and uncertain futures', while Chapin
et al . (2009) advocate ' resilience - based natural resource
management in a changing world' and other authors
suggest 'resilience thinking' as an approach likely to
assist and inform ecosystem management (Walker &
Salt 2006; Fischer et al . 2009). However, while resil-
ience thinking is thus seen as a useful concept with
policy relevance, it has also been viewed as potentially
confusing because it is a conceptual muddle without
clear operational utility (Brand & Jax 2007). How to
actually maintain or restore resilience in practical
terms remains a challenge because of the lack of clear
measures or operational guidelines. It appears to be
essential that this challenge is tackled effectively, given
the increasingly important role resilience is seen to
have in allowing ecosystems and human societies to
deal with multiple environmental changes. For
example, Chapin et al . (2006) discussed policy strate-
gies to address sustainability of Alaskan forests in
response to a directionally changing climate. A key
strategy identifi ed was increasing resilience by strength-
ening feedbacks that buffer the system from change
and increasing options for adaptation through biologi-
cal, cultural, and economic diversity. A further example
is given in Chapter 20, dealing with invasive species.
planet, even without climate change. As Hobbs et al .
(2009) suggest, 'In the meantime, it is prudent to
respect several delicate balances: between ecosystem
services and natural processes, and between ecological
integrity and cultural values'.
Another key recommendation is to vary manage-
ment approaches both locally and regionally, given the
uncertainty of what the future holds: putting all eggs
in one basket does not seem sensible. For instance,
Ravenscroft et al . (2010), using a modelling approach
to forest restoration in the eastern United States,
suggested that 'Given the uncertainty associated
with climate change, ensuring a diversity of species
and conditions within forested landscapes may be
the most effective means of ensuring the future resist-
ance of ecosystems to climate-induced declines in
productivity ' .
Beyond these overarching themes, the particulars of
management approaches such as assisted coloniza-
tion, large-scale connectivity and resilience all require
considerable thought and increased efforts to link
theory with practice so that operational and effective
approaches can be developed that incorporate the
reality of climate change in local and regional restora-
tion and ecosystem management projects and pro-
grammes. Climate change provides opportunities for
restoration as well as challenges. For example, the
advent of markets for carbon and the need for carbon
sequestration have the potential to provide funds for
large-scale restoration projects that would otherwise
be too costly (e.g. Bekessy & Wintle 2008; Galatowitsch
2009). As another example, in growing cities around
the world, communities and local authorities are rec-
ognizing the benefi ts of increasing the numbers of
trees in the urban environment, and particularly in the
context of a warming world, trees can modulate local
climate and temperature (e.g. Million Trees NYC, in
New York City http://www.milliontreesnyc.org).
3.5
PERSPECTIVES
The key take-home message from this chapter is that
climate change adds a layer of uncertainty and change
over a world already undergoing rapid and pervasive
change through human modifi cation of ecosystems.
While there is considerable debate on how to factor
climate change into policy and ecosystem manage-
ment, few concrete ways forward have emerged.
However, uncertainty cannot be an excuse for inac-
tion, and scientists have a responsibility to (1) try to
identify and reduce uncertainties where possible, (2)
help develop strategies for dealing with uncertainties
where they are known to exist and (3) better equip
humanity to anticipate and prepare for future sur-
prises. Repeatedly, the message seems to be that if
humanity was able to better implement the policies,
strategies and management options that are already
recommended and available, this would go a long way
to help us respond effectively to the additional chal-
lenges arising because of climate change. Humanity
faces signifi cant challenges in the stewardship of the
We are at an interesting point in history where we
know that we need new approaches to ecosystem man-
agement and restoration which complement, rather
than replace, the approaches that have developed over
the last century. However, there are many questions
around these approaches, and as yet no clear answers
to these questions. This makes it both an extremely
uncertain time in restoration practice and an extremely
interesting and crucial time to be working in restora-
tion research.
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