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semi-arid ecosystems towards a more productive state.
Because of positive feedbacks, a more productive state
would tend to be maintained despite the relatively
short duration of the rainy pulse that triggered the
increase in primary productivity. This is an attractive
proposal with major implications for future restoration
programmes of original Mediterranean semi-arid and
arid shrublands and woodlands, since ENSO events are
potentially predictable several months in advance, they
are connected to climate in distant MCRs, and model
forecasts are steadily improving (Goddart
et al
. 2001 ).
ENSO events have become more frequent in the last few
decades, and their frequency might increase further as
a result of global climate warming (Timmermann
et al
.
1999). We could therefore take advantage of these
changes by coupling reforestation programmes and
herbivory control to forecasted high rainfall ENSO
events to enhance the probabilities of plant establish-
ment at probably lower costs than those involved with
traditional restoration programmes. Hopefully, increas-
ing knowledge of projected future climate systems will
allow optimizing restoration timing by forecasting, and
taking advantage of, recruitment cycles.
MCR ecosystems have been subjected to long-term
human pressure that has deeply modifi ed their charac-
teristics and spatial distribution, often resulting in de-
gradation deserving restoration actions. Nowadays,
new disturbances emerging since the post-industrial
era interact with old disturbances, and on top of them
global change is introducing further stress and complex
changes in the disturbance regime. Biophysical ap-
proaches and technologies to address ecological resto-
ration in MCRs have developed quickly during the last
two decades, although mostly considering static refer-
ences and targets. Under the scientifi cally acknowl-
edged rapid dynamics of global change, the current
challenge is to adapt ecological restoration theory and
practice to these accelerated dynamics, including the
socio-economic perspective. MCRs, with their extreme
complexity, both biophysical and social, would be ex-
cellent pilot regions for testing new ecological restora-
tion approaches in the face of global change.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank J.A. Alloza, F. Maestre and S. Bautista for
providing helpful information for the elaboration of
this chapter and J.P. Bakker, C. Fontaine and J. van
Andel for many helpful comments on the manuscript.
Elaboration of this review has been fi nanced partially
by the Generalitat Valenciana, BANCAIXA, the Spanish
projects RECUVES (Ministerio Medio Ambiente, Medio
Rural y Marino, 077/RN08/04.1), GRACCIE (Ministe-
rio de Ciencia e Innovación, Programa Consolider-
Ingenio 2010, CSD2007-00067) and PROMETEO/
2009/006. J.R. Gutiérrez thanks a sabbatical fellow-
ship of the Ministerio de Educación, Spain.
