Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
long-term transdisciplinary restoration research and
demonstration project in northern Mexico.
be costly, but are politically challenging. While there
have been many examples of worthwhile projects that
have made technical improvements to agriculture in
the drylands, there are few examples of the drylands
being systematically considered in economic and trade
policies, either nationally or regionally (Dobie 2001).
Restoration of arid and semi-arid lands on a large scale
will demand reform of these economic policy drivers.
James F. Reynolds and coworkers have outlined the
Drylands Development Paradigm
for research that inter-
links coupled
human - ecological systems
(H - E systems;
Reynolds
et al
. 2007). This paradigm consists of fi ve
principles of particular signifi cance in drylands and
focuses on inter- and intrarelationships in dryland
systems:
1.
H - E systems are coupled, dynamic and co - adapting,
so that their structure, function and interrelatioships
change over time. Understanding dryland desertifi ca-
tion and development issues requires the simultaneous
consideration of both human and ecological drivers.
2.
A limited suite of ' slow ' variables are critical deter-
minants of H-E system dynamics. Identifying and
monitoring key 'slow' variables are particularly impor-
tant in drylands where highly fl uctuating ' fast ' varia-
bles often mask fundamental change related to slow
variables.
3.
Thresholds in key slow variables defi ne different
states of the H-E systems. The costs of intervention
rise nonlinearly with increase in land degradation or
the degree of socio-economic dysfunction. Managers
should adopt the precautionary principle.
4.
Coupled H - E systems are hierarchical, nested and
networked across multiple scales. Drylands are often
distant from economic and policy centers and have dif-
fi culty infl uencing policy drivers.
5.
The maintenance of a body of up - to - date local
environmental knowledge (LEK) is key to functional
co-adaptation and restoration of H-E systems. The Dry-
lands Development Paradigm also addresses the needs
of research, management, and policy communities.
10.4.3
Funding
By my estimate, funding a study like this in the arid
lands of a developed country like the United States
might cost $5 million over 10 years. In Mexico and
other developing countries, the cost would be consider-
ably less. Secure funding for the long term, perhaps
10-20 years or more, is essential. The Long-Term Eco-
logical Research sites of the National Science Founda-
tion and a few development and conservation projects
around the world have shown that long-term inte-
grated research is invaluable. Inadequate funding, too
little, too short, has hampered much of the research on
ecological restoration and integrated development.
Long-term funding is needed to ensure that students
can complete projects and fi nd continuing support for
career advancement. Projects like this can provide
meaningful change not only in the community where
it is implemented, but throughout the region and for
similar climate/cultural areas in other areas of the
world. The benefi ts will also include new faculty and
managers trained in systems analysis and arid and
semi - arid lands restoration.
The World Bank and other international institutions
are increasingly cognizant of the importance of eco-
nomic incentives for improving land management, but
this growing recognition has led to little improvement
on the ground. The legacy of past economic colonial-
ism through abusive loans and development pro-
grammes has also left a series of tragic consequences.
The need for external funding support for the develop-
ing countries that will feel the most severe impacts of
desertifi cation and climate change is recognized in
both the Climate and Desertifi cation Conventions. The
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) places particular emphasis on the
responsibility of developed country parties for funding
climate change mitigation and adaptation due to
their disproportionate contribution to the problem of
climate change (Lorimer
et al
. 2009). If we adopt a
funding goal of just $5 per resident affected, we would
have $1.25 billion to work with, enough for 5000
local, integrated, multidisciplinary, long-term manage-
ment for restoration efforts.
Efforts to address the causes of desertifi cation also
require funding (Glenn
et al
. 1998 ). These would not
10.5
PERSPECTIVES
The world's drylands are beset by problems of overuse
and mismanagement, and most are experiencing
declines in ecosystem health and productivity. Growing
human populations and changing economic struc-
tures can add further pressure to fragile lands (Depner
2011 ). Desertifi cation is causing increasingly severe
