Travel Reference
In-Depth Information
distances, additional demand has been generated (Civil Aviation Authority,
2006; Dennis, 2007). However, long-distance train services between countries
have been disappearing, due, in part, to competition from air (van Goeverden,
2007). New air-based markets include weekend breaks to a variety of
European destinations, with some indication that people are taking such trips
simply because they have the disposable time and the financial outlay is min-
imal. The cycle of provision, increasing use and the (perceived) reduced costs
have helped to embed air travel as a dominant system of provision.
The structures that consumers may engage with in order to take a holiday
are also controlled by tour operators, particularly in relation to package hol-
idays. For instance, it can be difficult to book a holiday from the UK to a
Mediterranean resort without including air transport. This is due, in part, to
the links between tour operators and airlines. Where slow travel options are
available, these are generally packaged as a train or coach holiday, rather than
as an alternative way to travel to a destination over several days rather than
hours. On a small scale, some package alternatives are becoming available. For
example, TUI Nordic has developed the Blue Train, a train charter holiday
package from Malmö in Sweden to a number of resorts in other parts of
Europe (TUI Travel PLC, 2009). Industry structures also link particular
modes, such as air travel with car hire. On the other hand, it can be relatively
difficult to find information on, or book, train, bus or coach travel in con-
junction with a flight. Smith (2008) became exasperated with the structural
barriers to booking continental rail trips, and thus set up an advisory service,
known as the 'The Man in Seat 61', so that users can seek train travel as an
alternative to flights.
Given the rise in independently organized travel via web-based intermedi-
aries, the barriers provided by package options may be less relevant in the
future. 'Travel and communication technologies are travel partners', it has
been argued by Larsen et al (2006, p124); however, there are many structural
problems associated with booking trains. In the UK it is not possible to book
more than three months in advance, yet other holidays (including flights) can
be booked over a year in advance. It can also be difficult to book train travel
where more than one international border is crossed; this usually entails
breaking the journey down, for ticketing purposes, into separate trips. Given
the likelihood of crossing several borders in Europe, this is a particular
problem.
Social rules and expectations in tourism
A variety of social rules and embedded norms also structure expectations and
behaviour in tourism. Much of this is interlinked with wider social changes.
For example, improving travel infrastructure and reducing travel costs have
enabled dispersed social networks to be maintained (Larsen et al, 2006).
Similarly, as the time and cost of travel have reduced, people are able to take
more short holidays, as opposed to a single two-week holiday per year. This
is not universal, and different national vacation structures have particular
effects. For instance, the strong work ethic in Japanese society determines that
most people are limited to one-week holidays. This has significant implications
