Travel Reference
In-Depth Information
the model does not work. For example, it is not about people's general envi-
ronmental attitudes, but people's specific attitudes towards low-carbon travel
on holiday. The theory of reasoned action highlights the gap between inten-
tion and action, the 'value
-
action gap', where situational control and
psychological variables can determine whether or not values are translated
into behaviour (Barr et al, 2003). This theory has been applied in tourism
studies and studies on attitudes to transport and travel behaviour (e.g.
Anable, 2005; Department for Transport, 2002). There is some suggestion
that the theory does not perform well in relation to pro-environmental
behaviour and that this is therefore different from other behaviours (Gärling
et al, 2003).
Ajzen's (1991) later theory of planned behaviour brings in perceived
behavioural control, and Anable (2005) extends the use of the theory of
planned behaviour by incorporating moral norms and psychological attach-
ment to the car to improve its explanatory power in predicting modal choice.
She argues that it is the combination of 'instrumental, situational and psycho-
logical factors' which affects travel choice, and these operate in distinct ways
for distinct groups of people. In a reflection on the theory of planned behav-
iour, Hares et al (2010) question 'whether climate change is conceptually
linked to tourism at all'. Given their scepticism that climate change is in the
attitudinal set of tourism decisions for most people, they doubt whether much
behavioural change will be apparent in respect to flying.
In relation to perceived behavioural control, Hares et al (2010) found that
flying was considered the only viable option for some tourist destinations, and
that participants were unwilling to modify tourism behaviour by choosing an
alternative destination based on reasons related to reducing climate change.
The lack of personal responsibility displayed by participants in their study is
clearly a barrier to adjusting holiday travel behaviour in favour of lower-
carbon options. A classic example of the attitude
-
behaviour gap is the
environmentally conscious eco-tourist, keen to support wildlife conservation
efforts yet, through his/her desire to view key species, causing damage through
extended long-haul travel and localized impacts on pristine wildlife destina-
tions (Curtin and Wilkes, 2005; Wall, 1997).
Hares et al (2010) identify three barriers to engaging in lower-carbon
tourism travel behaviour:
1
dismissal of alternative transport modes to air travel - can be seen as a
structural or psychological barrier
2
reluctance to adapt holidays to mitigate climate change impacts
3
unwillingness to accept personal responsibility for impacts of holidays on
climate change.
The authors suggest that there is an awareness-attitude gap, rather than an
attitude-behaviour gap. Their analysis of focus groups showed an awareness
of how holiday travel might impact on climate change, but this did not
translate into appropriate pro-environmental attitudes. Therefore, based on
Ajzen's theory of planned behaviour, the attitudes and behaviour were entirely
