Travel Reference
In-Depth Information
as an accessibility tool linking destinations to source markets (Prideaux,
2000). Prideaux (2000, p56) notes:
If the ability of tourists to travel to preferred destinations is
inhibited by inefficiencies in the transport system such as uncom-
petitive prices or lengthy journey times, there is a likelihood that
they will seek alternative destinations.
Prideaux argues the time cost may be more important than the monetary cost
if the tourist has little time, although both these factors and substitutes are
taken into account in travel cost models (Caulkins et al, 1986).
Based on such models, slow travel would be a rational decision in some
contexts, where it might represent the most time- or cost-efficient form of
travel, or a pragmatic choice due to, for example, a disability or a preference
for moderate temperatures found closer to home (Maddison, 2001). However,
in many tourism contexts, slow travel would not be seen as a rational deci-
sion, as it can take longer and cost more, especially in the current era of
low-cost airlines. In terms of a rational decision-making perspective, slow
travel could be interpreted as a form of ethical purchasing behaviour
(Goodwin and Frances, 2003). This involves applying additional criteria to the
typical consumer behaviour perspective; that is, people normally buy the best
quality products they can afford, but choose the cheapest if the utility is as
good as more expensive options (Harrison et al, 2006). Slow travellers could
well be applying additional ethical criteria to take account of the effects their
travel behaviour might have on environmental and social concerns, in line
with a theory of commitment to society (Fennell, 2006). Slow travel might also
be interpreted as an active choice of a particular travel experience, based on a
chosen mode, or a preferred mobility style. Slow travellers do not ignore price
and time, but are applying additional criteria during decision-making. Peters
(2006) refers to this as the construction of a passage for travel (relationship
between time and space) where a journey can be made. For some people, the
'slow' element is crucial, as they wish to take time on the journey; it is clearly
not perceived as a travel cost but a travel benefit.
Modal choice is also, in many circumstances, linked to structures avail-
able in a given society (Randles and Mander, 2009b; Urry, 2007; Urry, 2008).
In this respect, studies have examined the importance of habitual behaviour
(Ouellette and Wood, 1998). While this may be less important in a tourism
context, there is evidence that even irregular tourism travel decisions are to
some extent habitual, and people become locked in to high-carbon structures
of travel.
Given the importance of reducing various environmental impacts of travel,
much work has focused on the potential for behavioural change, particularly
from car travel to other forms of transport (see, for example, Anable, 2005;
Böhler et al, 2006; Dickinson and Robbins, 2008; Gärling et al, 2000). More
recent studies have also explored the behaviour of air travellers and the poten-
tial to reduce air travel, given its high contribution to GHG emissions (Hares
et al, 2010). Much of the work in this area has drawn on theories that link
