Travel Reference
In-Depth Information
results have not been encouraging (Culinane, 1997). More recent interven-
tions, mainly urban in nature, have achieved very different results, such as the
cycle-sharing schemes in France (see Chapter 6 for details) and traffic reduc-
tion in cities such as London, Lyon and Paris (Massot et al, 2006;
Prud'homme and Bocarejo, 2006); and all point to a way in which the popu-
lation will respond to alternatives to the car if they are planned and executed
at a level that is convenient, are well publicized and do not require a major
shift in values and practical response.
A marked benefit would be achieved by encouraging a reduction in air
travel in favour of land-based public transport (see Table 4.2, Chapter 4). For
example, a policy to invest in a national high-speed rail network in France and
Spain has resulted in a considerable reduction of internal air travel (Givoni,
2006). Given its importance to slow travel, low-carbon transport is discussed
in an extended section in Chapter 4, as it is one of the core ingredients of slow
travel.
Another strategic strand in market behaviour is to encourage an increase
in length of stay. However, this needs to be given careful consideration.
Studies suggest longer stays spread the travel carbon footprint and improve
the eco-efficiency of a holiday (see, for example, Gössling et al, 2005; Peeters
et al, 2006; Peeters and Schouten, 2006). The problem is the transport carbon
footprint still remains constant, regardless of length of stay, and this is the
major energy and emissions output of all holidays. There is, however, a sub-
stantial carbon saving if a tourist substitutes three short holidays for one long
holiday at a similar distance.
Distance is also another important consideration. Van Goeverden (2007)
shows from 1990 to 2001 a 24 per cent growth rate in Dutch travel of
2000-3000km and an 8 per cent growth in travel over 3000km. In this
respect, low-cost airlines have opened up air travel to new travellers in many
parts of the globe. Introduced in the USA, low-cost aviation has since spread
to Europe, Australasia, South East Asia, India, the Gulf states and South
America (Nilsson, 2009). An additional point, taken up by Dubois and Ceron
(2006b), indicates that the tourism sector continues to promote unsustainable
behaviour, as tourists are encouraged to take short duration breaks to more
distant destinations. The argument is that this is what the market desires -
more shorter holidays, and at longer distances. This is a questionable assump-
tion. The tourism sector continues to portray an imagery that reflects speed,
distance and frequency. Peeters (2007, p21) suggests: 'tour operators have to
find innovative ways to sell more short- and medium-haul destinations with
comparably slow transport modes and preferably a longer length of stay and
thus higher revenue per trip.'
The underlying structural issue offers part of the explanation. Mature des-
tinations attempting to survive in a highly competitive market are drawn
towards the promotion of short breaks in order to sustain capacity; this mir-
rors the overall growth-at-all-costs culture. A review of the product life cycle
would imply contraction of capacity at destinations during late maturity. It is
difficult to rejuvenate or modify products at this stage without substantial
investment. However, contraction of capacity enables a destination to be
