Travel Reference
In-Depth Information
effect (Becken and Hay, 2007). However, this type of comparison with other
sectors of the economy underplays the contribution of aviation:
The same basis of analysis would suggest that the UK's total
transport and power station emissions are not major sources
when compared with global totals; similarly the emissions from
nations such as Belgium, Portugal and the Netherlands are too
small to be the focus of concerted low-carbon action.
Unfortunately, this view is all too prevalent in discussions over
climate change…
All
emissions are inevitably the aggregate of
smaller percentages; using this as an excuse for relative inaction
will collectively lead to individual, sectoral, national and, ulti-
mately, global apathy. (Bows et al, 2009a, pp105-6)
The airline industry acknowledges that emissions are set to grow (IATA,
2008b). Tourist travel in Europe is both increasing in volume and shifting to
less energy-efficient modes (van Goeverden, 2007), as 'budget airlines have
compressed Europe's cities into a transnational network of cheap and accessi-
ble playgrounds' (Larsen et al, 2006, p101). As Nilsson (2009, p126)
indicates, 'from a global, environmental perspective the development of low-
cost aviation is nothing less than disastrous'. In the EU, Bows et al (2009b)
predict that the aviation share of tourism trips may increase to 30 per cent
within two decades and be responsible for a 75 per cent share of CO
2
emis-
sions in tourism. This reflects an overall trend of people taking more holidays
and travelling further.
There is also the question of aircraft emissions at altitude. Due to the
altitude at which aeroplanes fly, their NOx emissions undergo a variety of
complex interactions with other compounds, leading to a much greater impact
than that of CO
2
alone (Bows and Anderson, 2007). This leads to additional
radiative forcing; that is, the human modification of the natural greenhouse
effect in the upper atmosphere (the troposphere). While there is still some
uncertainty over the science, it is estimated that the radiative forcing of air
travel is two to four times the effect of CO
2
emissions (Becken and Hay, 2007;
Chapman, 2007). Therefore, closer attention needs to be paid to the climate
change impacts of aviation emissions.
Car-based tourism
While air travel causes significant climate change impacts, attention also needs
to be paid to land-based travel, especially car-based tourism (Sharpley, 2009).
Leisure-related travel (a broad category) accounts for between 40 and 50 per
cent of all travel in industrialized countries (Becken and Hay, 2007; Holden,
2007). In the UK, leisure-related travel accounts for half of all journeys and
53 per cent of mileage if shopping is included, or 31 per cent of journeys and
40 per cent of mileage with shopping excluded (Department for Transport,
2009), while in Germany it is estimated leisure trips account for 48 per cent
of mileage (Schlich et al, 2004). In the USA, leisure accounts for 57 per cent
of long-distance trips (round trip of over 100 miles or 160km), of which 30
