Travel Reference
In-Depth Information
responding to increased visitor spending, both directly and indirectly related
to tourism. However, the level of benefits can be questioned on a number of
counts. For instance, infrastructure provision may be geared to serve tourists
only; for example, the building of an integrated resort with improved high-
ways and airport to serve it. At the same time, local people may still lack
access to basic needs such as access to local markets or clean water. Where
natural resources are in short supply, visitors can compete with residents for
access to them. In many destinations in developing countries the main issue
relates to water: should it be for tourists and golf courses, or the development
of local agriculture (Essex et al, 2004)?
There are also limitations with the nature of job opportunities that arise
through tourism. Jobs may not be desirable (Lankford, 1994); they can be
part-time, seasonal, low-skilled, poorly paid and with little prospect of career
development (Mason, 2003). In some places labour is brought in from else-
where, or labour migrates from other regions, bringing other problems for a
destination area (Croall, 1995).
Tourism may be developed by external organizations, often owned by
foreign nationals, thus leading to leakage; that is, the money spent by tourists
is drawn out of the local economy to other regions and countries (Gössling,
Peeters and Scott, 2008). All-inclusive resorts are a prime example of this
phenomenon. Such resorts are often owned by large international organiza-
tions and there is limited community involvement in their development
(Sharpley, 2009). Tourists pay for an all-inclusive package. They can even be
persuaded not to leave the complex, because of concerns expressed about
crime and poor localities (Sheridan and Teal, 2006). Such resort complexes
often import food and labour, and thus little money finds its way into the local
economy. A similar diagnosis has been applied to the cruise economy in the
Caribbean (Klein, 2005).
As well as questioning economic benefits, many studies identify a variety
of negative economic impacts, such as localized inflation, increased house
prices and housing costs, increased cost of living and increased local taxes (Ap,
1990; Hall and Page, 2006; Jafari et al, 1990; Johnson et al, 1994; Mason,
2003). Given the problems described in a growing number of studies, some
have questioned the value of tourism as the most appropriate and successful
economic development tool where there are better alternative investments
available in many cases (Gössling and Hall, 2006; Gössling, Peeters and Scott,
2008; Nawijn et al, 2008). Sharpley (2009) argues that sustainable tourism
development strategies rarely consider alternatives to tourism. This raises
concerns, as economic development is both the main driver of positive socio-
cultural and environmental benefits, and the main justification for negative
impacts.
Tourism offers a number of potential socio-cultural benefits. Typically
these include: enhanced international recognition of the destination region;
increased availability of recreation facilities for local people; improved
police and fire protection; improved quality of life; encouragement of cultural
activities by local people; and preservation of cultural identity of the host pop-
ulation (Hall and Page, 2006; Pearce, 1998; Sharpley, 1999). However, there
