Travel Reference
In-Depth Information
of transport to this process has been underestimated; over 50 per cent of
annual travel distance can be attributed to leisure travel in developed coun-
tries (Holden, 2007). There are increasing calls for transport not only to
reduce CO
2
emissions, but also to enhance liveability across communities
(Hickman and Banister, 2007).
There are three driving forces fuelling the existing tourism system; these
are not significantly different from Krippendorf's diagnosis in the 1980s
(Krippendorf, 1984). This system has proved its resilience and has continued
to achieve growth, despite international epidemics, financial crises, wars and
terrorism in the intervening 25 years. The processes are as follows:
1
Socio-cultural values continue to favour travel as a leisure pursuit.
The combination of increased leisure time in many western societies, and
amongst the mercantile classes of the developing economies, coupled with
a propensity to spend disposable income on travel, are two constant deter-
minants. The advances in technology, changes in the procurement of
information and advice and attitudes towards mobility are also important
stimulants within the current tourism sector. Marketing is more than a
simple brochure highlighting distribution channels; it is a labyrinth of
societal interfaces including media representation, viral communications
and a general hub of promotional messages about speed, distance, aero-
mobility and automobility, which Urry refers to as the essential elements
of mobilities.
2
A reduction in travel costs has changed perceptions of travel.
The travel time budget of people has remained relatively constant in recent
years (Metz, 2008). However, improved transport technology and gov-
ernment investment in infrastructure and reduced energy prices have
enabled access to a wider range of destinations within this overall budget.
This real reduction in cost, associated with low-cost airlines and falling
petrol prices (in real terms), is compounded by a perceived reduction in
travel cost in the market place. This has fuelled a demand for shorter-stay
tourism over longer distances.
3
The tourism supply sector is still growing, and choice of destination has
become almost infinite.
Local and national governments, pan-governmental organizations and the
media have continued to encourage the supply of new destinations (and
equally resist the decline of resorts in other places). The rationale behind
destination development is to stimulate economic activity led by power-
ful, upstream institutional drives. Other factors, such as environmental
externalities accruing from such developments, have been far less impor-
tant. The process of increased supply is uneven and has been undertaken
regardless of competitive advantage or disadvantage in a global market.
The result is that the tourism system has enjoyed almost continued growth, but
there have been losses attributed to this process too. They are best summarized
as a degradation of the 'public goods' associated with many destinations, a loss
of diversity (and biodiversity) across destination regions coupled with a
