Travel Reference
In-Depth Information
to provide a low-carbon alternative is limited, and much sailing depends on
high-carbon infrastructure.
Kayaks, canoes and yachts are increasingly an integral element of affluent
lifestyles for many. Thus, while the activity itself may be carbon neutral, it is
associated with high-carbon lifestyles and may be integrated with other forms
of carbon-intensive travel. This presents a problem for the categorization of
these activities as slow travel, and much depends on their integration with
appropriate forms of land-based travel.
With respect to motorized vessels, in general, a review of the literature on
marine tourism and cruise shipping shows that, to date, little attention has been
paid to climate change impacts of passenger vessels. Barges and narrow boats
predominantly rely on motorized propulsion; therefore, there is a carbon foot-
print. However, given the slow speed of travel and relatively low mileage, the
carbon footprint is likely to be comparatively low. Barge travel can also inte-
grate with cycling (Erfurt-Cooper, 2009), resulting in a low-carbon holiday.
Shipping, including passenger vessels, is currently excluded from the
Kyoto Protocol (Holmgren et al, 2006). The GHG emissions that arise from
shipping are predominantly due to CO
2
(99 per cent) (Holmgren et al, 2006).
NO
X
and SO
2
, which are the subject of emerging emissions control agreements
(NERA Consulting, 2005), have a net negative effect on radiative forcing but
cause other, significant air-quality problems (Holmgren et al, 2006). While it
is recognized that international shipping has important impacts on climate
change (Corbett and Farrell, 2002; Corbett and Koehler, 2003), few studies
have attempted to quantify the climate change impacts of shipping, and fewer
still have focused on passenger ships.
Estimates of the contribution of shipping to GHG emissions vary.
Chapman (2007) estimated that shipping as a whole accounted for up to 7 per
cent of global GHG emissions in 2000, while Eyring and Corbett (2007) esti-
mate a contribution of 2.7 per cent to all anthropogenic CO
2
emissions in
2000. The variability in these studies is partly due to different accounting sys-
tems; however, the different figures also reflect considerable uncertainty in
quantifying shipping emissions. Globally, Eyring and Corbett (2007) suggest
CO
2
emissions from shipping are of the same order as for aviation. In Europe
the total CO
2
from shipping exceeds that of aviation, and on this basis there
have been calls to include shipping in the EU ETS (Davies, 2006). Emissions
from shipping, as a whole, are increasing, and CO
2
emissions from shipping
could double by 2050 from their present levels. However, it is worth noting
that shipping is generally considered an environmentally sound form of trans-
port with regards to emissions per unit transported (Pisani, 2002).
Based on the limited material available, the following can be concluded
about motorized passenger vessels. Speed is important in the marketing of
high-speed ferries and cruise ships. Faster vessels emit more GHG per passen-
ger km (pkm) than slower vessels (based on estimates by Psaraftis and Kontov,
2009). Thus, high-speed, hydrofoil ferries will emit more GHG per pkm than
slower ferries of a similar capacity. Size is also important, but is more com-
plex for passenger vessels compared to freight. In a freight context, small
vessels emit more GHG per tonne-km than large vessels (Psaraftis and Kontov,
