Chemistry Reference
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to summer smog, toxic particulate matter, and carcinogenicity, which have negative human health
impacts,werealsosubstantiallylowerfortheherbicide-tolerantcrop.Thus,inadditiontoherbicideuse,
RRsugarbeetcultivationmayreduceenergyuseandecotoxicity.
Pidgeonetal.(2007)applied,fortheirsttime,the“bow-tie”riskmanagementapproachinagri-
culture,fortheassessmentoflandusechanges,inacasestudyregardingthepossibleintroductionof
GMHTsugarbeetintotheU.K.Thisisanimportantissuenotonlyduetotheagronomicandeconomic
beneitsthatitcouldbringtofarmersbutalsobecausetheEUsugarregimereformisreducingtheproit-
abilityofsugarbeetproductionseriously.Thestudyconcludedthat,althoughtherearecertainlyagro-
nomicandeconomicbeneits,indirectenvironmentalharmfromincreasedweedcontrolposesahazard.
In the U.S., between 2009 and 2011, the United States District Court for the Northern District
of California considered the case involving the planting of GM sugar beets (McGinnis et al. 2010).
ThiscaseinvolvesMonsanto'sbreedofpesticide-resistantsugarbeets.Earlierin2010,JudgeJeffreyS.
WhiteallowedtheplantingofGMsugarbeetstocontinue,buthealsowarnedthatthismaybeblocked
inthefuturewhileanenvironmentalreviewwastakingplace.On13August2010,JudgeWhiteordered
ahalttotheplantingoftheGMsugarbeetsintheU.S.Heindicatedthat,“TheAgricultureDepartment
hadnotadequatelyassessedtheenvironmentalconsequencesbeforeapprovingthemforcommercial
cultivation.”ThedecisionwastheresultofalawsuitorganizedbytheCenterforFoodSafety,aU.S.
nongovernmentalorganizationthatisacriticofbiotechcrops.On25February2011,afederalappeals
courtfortheNorthernDistrictofCaliforniainSanFranciscooverturnedapreviousrulingbyJudge
JeffreyS.WhitetodestroyjuvenileGMsugarbeets,rulinginfavorofMonsanto,theDepartmentof
AgricultureAnimalandPlantHealthInspectionService(APHIS),andfourseedcompanies.Thecourt
concludedthat,“ThePlaintiffshavefailedtoshowalikelihoodofirreparableinjury.Biology,geog-
raphy, ield experience, and permit restrictions make irreparable injury unlikely.” In February 2011,
The USDA allowed the commercial planting of GM sugar beet under closely controlled conditions.
Analysisofpotentialtargetsforsugarbeetimprovementhasincludedmodiicationofgibberellinsig-
naling(metabolismandsignaltransduction)asreportedbyMutasa-Gottgensetal.(2009).
12.6 GeNetICaLLY MODIFIeD COrN SYrUp
12.6.1 how high-Fructose Corn Syrup Is Made
High-fructosecornsyrup(HFCS)comprisesanyofagroupofcornsyrupthathasundergone
enzymaticprocessingtoconvertsomeofitsglucoseintofructosetoproduceadesiredsweetness.In
theUnitedStates,consumerfoodsandproductstypicallyuseHFCSasasweetener.Ithasbecome
very common in processed foods and beverages in the U.S., including breads, cereals, breakfast
bars,lunchmeats,yogurts,soups,andcondiments(Wallingaetal.2009).
ThemostwidelyusedvarietiesofHFCSareHFCS55(mostlyusedinsoftdrinks;approximately
55% fructose and 42% glucose) and HFCS 42 (used in many foods and baked goods; approxi-
mately 42%fructoseand53%glucose).HFCS90(approximately90%fructoseand10%glucose)
isusedinsmallquantitiesforspecialtyapplicationsbutisprimarilyusedtoblendwithHFCS42to
makeHFCS55(White2008).
HFCSismadefromcornkernels.Actualsyrupproductionnecessitatesawholestringofindustrial
processes, including high-velocity spinning and the introduction of three different enzymes to incite
molecularrearrangements.Theenzymesturnmostoftheglucosemoleculesincornintofructose,which
makesthesubstancesweeter.This90%fructosesyrupmixtureisthencombinedwithregular100%glu-
cosecornsyruptogetthedesiredbalanceofglucoseandfructose,somewherebetweenequalquantities
ofbothtoaratioof80%-20%.Theinalproductisaclear,thickliquidsweeterthansugar.
HFCSisproducedbymillingcorntoproducecornstarch,processingthatstarchtoyieldcorn
syrup,whichisalmostentirelyglucose,andthenaddingenzymesthatchangesomeoftheglucose
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