Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
and has also found in the US in Hawaii and
Florida [89].
Egypt
. In 1970, Anwar al Sadat reportedly
stated that “Egypt has biological weapons stored
in refrigerators and could use them against
Israel's crowded population” [90]. This statement
was understood as warning against a nuclear
strike by Israel during the 1973 Yom Kippur
War [91]. Allegations have described Egypt as
conducting research on anthrax, plague, tularemia,
cholera, botulinum toxin, mycotoxins, smallpox,
influenza, Japanese B encephalitis, Eastern equine
encephalitis, and Rift Valley fever virus for mili-
tary purposes [69,91]. Egypt has denied these
claims, and there is no proof of biological warfare
research in Egypt [92].
France
. During 1921-1926 and 1935-1940, the
French engaged in biological weapons research.
This program was continued in 1940-1945 under
German occupation [93]. The potato beetle was
developed as a biological weapon, and research
was conducted upon anthrax, salmonella, cholera,
rinderpest, botulinum toxin, and ricin as biological
weapons [69,94].
India
. Some sources suggest that India possesses
biological weapons, but this is unproven. With its'
extensive and advanced pharmaceutical industry,
India is technically capable of developing biolog-
ical weapons [95]. The Defense Research and
Development Establishment (DRDE) at Gwalior is
the primary establishment for biological defense
studies for bacterial and viral agents. India has
conducted research on countering various diseases,
including plague, brucellosis, and smallpox [95].
Iran
. Although strongly denied, Iran is suspected
of initiating a biological warfare program during
the Iran-Iraq War, and to now be in an advanced
research and development phase. Iran has skilled
scientists, extensive pharmaceutical expertise, and
the commercial and military infrastructure to
produce biological weapons. Former Russian
biological weapons scientists have traveled to Iran,
and a combined biological and chemical weapons
facility is thought to be located at Damghan, in
northern Iran [96]. It has been projected that,
within 10 years, Iran's military may have biolog-
ical weapons [97]. Biological weapons research in
Iran is thought to include mycotoxins, ricin, and
smallpox virus [98].
Iraq
. In 1991, after the Persian Gulf War, UN
weapons inspections revealed the Iraqi offensive
biological program included basic research on
Ba.
anthracis
, rotavirus, camel pox virus, aflatoxin,
botulinum toxins, hemorrhagic conjuctivitis virus
(Enterovirus 70), rotavirus, mycotoxins, and wheat
cover smut [69]. Iraq had research facilities at
Salman Pak and other sites, many of which were
destroyed during the war. In 1995, further informa-
tion revealed that field tests were conducted with
B.
subtilis
(a simulant for
Ba. anthracis
), botulinum
toxin, and aflatoxin. Biological agents were tested
in various delivery systems, including rockets,
aerial bombs, and spray tanks. In December 1990,
the Iraqis filled 100 R400 bombs with botulinum
toxin, 50 with anthrax, and 16 with aflatoxin; 13
Al Hussein (SCUD) warheads were filled with
botulinum toxin, 10 with anthrax, and two with
aflatoxin. These weapons were deployed in January
1991 to four locations. Iraq produced a total
of 19,000 liters of concentrated botulinum toxin
(nearly 10,000 liters filled into munitions), 8500
liters of concentrated anthrax (6500 liters filled into
munitions) and 2200 liters of aflatoxin (1580 liters
filled into munitions) [99]. Fortunately, biological
weapons were not used during the Persian Gulf
War [100]. As of October 2004, it appears that
prior to the March 2003 US coalition invasion
of Iraq, the biological weapons program was not
reinstated other than research interests of the Iraqi
Intelligence Service (Mukhabarat) [101].
Israel
. Some Arab countries have alleged
that Israel has an offensive biological weapons
program, but this is unproven. Israeli military
personnel reportedly sabotaged wells with typhoid
and dysentery in near Haifa and in Gaza during
the 1948 war [102]. Reports have been made of a
supposed offensive biological weapons program at
the Israel Institute of Biological Research (IIBR)
in Ness Ziona. Research has been conducted at this
Institute on the causative agents of plague, rabies
typhus, and many toxins including
Staphycococcus
enterotoxin B [102]. The expansion of this Institute
has caused protests due to reports of injuries and
