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Several models were also used to estimate upper-limit exposure of honey bees to
CPY through consumption of water from puddles or dew. All models suggest that
the risk of CPY is below the LOC for this pathway. Laboratory experiments with
field-treated foliage, and semi-field and field tests with honey bees, bumble bees,
and alfalfa leafcutting bees indicate that exposure to foliage, pollen and/or nectar is
hazardous to bees up to 3 d after application of CPY to a crop. Pollinators exposed
to foliage, pollen or nectar after this time should be minimally affected.
Several data gaps and areas of uncertainty were identified, which apply to CPY
and other foliar insecticides. These primarily concern the lack of exposure and toxi-
cological data on non- Apis pollinators. Overall, the rarity of reported bee kill inci-
dents involving CPY indicates that compliance with the label precautions and good
agricultural practice with the product is the norm in North American agriculture.
Overall, we concluded that, provided label directions and good agricultural prac-
tices are followed, the use of CPY in agriculture in North America does not present
an unacceptable risk to honeybees.
Acknowledgements We thank Dow AgroSciences, LLC for their support of this study, in particu-
lar Nick Poletika for assistance in gathering technical information, and Mark Miles for discussion
on assessments using non-target arthropods. We thank Dwayne R.J. Moore for providing a model
used in estimation of CPY in dew, Marty Williams for providing data on concentrations in puddles,
and anonymous reviewers for useful comments and suggestions. Prof. Giesy was supported by the
Canada Research Chair program, a Visiting Distinguished Professorship in the Department of
Biology and Chemistry and State Key Laboratory in Marine Pollution, City University of Hong
Kong, the 2012 “High Level Foreign Experts” (#GDW20123200120) program, funded by the
State Administration of Foreign Experts Affairs, the P.R. China to Nanjing University and the
Einstein Professor Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Funding for this project was
provided by Dow AgroSciences.
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
Noncommercial License, which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction
in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.
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